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he is twenty-five years of age

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1 age

age [eɪdʒ]

âge ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (c), 1 (d) vieillesse ⇒ 1 (c) époque ⇒ 1 (d) éternité ⇒ 1 (e) vieillir ⇒ 2, 3

1 noun

(a) (of person, animal, tree, building) âge m;

∎ what age is he? quel âge a-t-il?;

∎ he is twenty-five years of age il est âgé de vingt-cinq ans;

∎ at the age of twenty-five à l'âge de vingt-cinq ans;

∎ when I was your age quand j'avais votre âge;

∎ she's the same age as me or as I am elle a le même âge que moi;

∎ his wife is only half his age sa femme n'a que la moitié de son âge;

∎ she's twice my age elle a le double de mon âge;

∎ I have a son your age j'ai un fils de votre âge;

∎ she's the same age as me or as I am elle a le même âge que moi;

∎ they're the same age ils sont du même âge, ils ont le même âge;

∎ people of all ages des gens de tout âge;

∎ people over the age of fifty les gens de plus de cinquante ans;

∎ he lived to a ripe old age il a vécu jusqu'à un bel âge ou très vieux;

∎ she doesn't look her age elle ne fait pas son âge;

∎ I'm beginning to feel my age je commence à me sentir vieux;

∎ act or be your age! (be reasonable) sois raisonnable!; (don't be silly) ne sois pas stupide!;

∎ he is at or of an age when he should consider settling down il est à un âge où il devrait penser à se ranger;

∎ the two of them were of an age ils étaient tous les deux à peu près du même âge;

∎ at your age you should know à ton âge, tu devrais savoir;

∎ at that age children need a lot of attention c'est un âge où les enfants demandent beaucoup d'attention;

∎ fifteen is the worst age quinze ans est l'âge le plus difficile

(b) (adulthood) Law

∎ to be of age être majeur;

∎ to come of age atteindre sa majorité, devenir majeur;

∎ figurative this way of thinking has at last come of age c'est un point de vue qui a fait son chemin;

∎ Law to be under age être mineur; (not old enough to buy alcohol etc) ne pas avoir l'âge

(c) (old age → of person) âge m, vieillesse f; (→ of wood, paper, wine) âge m;

∎ bent with age courbé par l'âge;

∎ yellow or yellowed with age jauni par l'âge;

∎ wisdom comes with age la sagesse vient avec l'âge;

∎ age has not been kind to her elle est marquée par l'âge;

∎ the house is falling to pieces with age la maison tombe de vieillesse ou de vétusté;

∎ the car's beginning to show its age la voiture commence à donner des signes de vieillesse;

∎ you're showing your age! (remembering things like that) tu es d'un autre âge!; (you've lost touch) tu te fais vieux!;

∎ humorous age before beauty! (when letting someone enter first) c'est le privilège de l'âge

(d) (period → historical) époque f, âge m; Geology âge m;

∎ the age we live in notre siècle, le siècle où nous vivons;

∎ in our age à notre époque;

∎ in an earlier age this wouldn't have been tolerated il fut un temps où on n'aurait pas toléré cela;

∎ she is the product of an earlier age elle est d'un autre temps;

∎ in this age of consumerism en cette ère de consumérisme;

∎ through the ages à travers les âges

(e) (usu pl) (long time) éternité f;

∎ she was an age getting dressed, it took her an age to get dressed elle a mis un temps fou à s'habiller;

∎ I haven't seen you for or in ages! cela fait une éternité que je ne vous ai (pas) vu!;

∎ I've been waiting (for) ages cela fait une éternité que j'attends;

∎ it took him ages to do the work il a mis très longtemps à faire le travail;

∎ it's expensive, but it lasts for ages c'est cher, mais ça dure très longtemps

2 intransitive verb

vieillir, prendre de l'âge;

∎ he's beginning to age il commence à se faire vieux;

∎ to age ten years vieillir de dix ans;

∎ he had aged beyond recognition il avait tellement vieilli qu'on ne le reconnaissait plus;

∎ to age well (person) vieillir bien; (wine, cheese) s'améliorer en vieillissant;

∎ he has aged a lot il a beaucoup vieilli

3 transitive verb

(a) (person) vieillir;

∎ the years had aged him il avait beaucoup vieilli;

∎ illness has aged her la maladie l'a vieillie

(b) (wine, cheese) laisser vieillir ou mûrir;

∎ aged in the wood vieilli en fût

►► age bracket tranche f d'âge;

Age Concern = association caritative britannique d'aide aux personnes âgées;

Law the age of consent = l'âge où les rapports sexuels sont autorisés;

∎ they are below the age of consent ils tombent sous le coup de la loi sur la protection des mineurs;

the age of discretion = âge auquel une personne est jugée apte à prendre ses responsabilités;

age group tranche f d'âge;

∎ the twenty to thirty age group la tranche d'âge des vingt à trente ans;

∎ the younger age group les jeunes mpl;

age limit limite f d'âge;

the age of reason l'âge m de raison;

History Age of Reason siècle m des lumières;

age ring (on tree) cerne m

✾ Book ✾ Film 'The Age of Innocence' Wharton, Scorsese 'L'Âge de l'innocence' (roman), 'Le Temps de l'innocence' (film)

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > age
2 five

1. n карт. пятёрка

five of spades — пятёрка пик

five spot — пятидолларовая бумажка, пятёрка

2. n пять, пятый

Chapter five — пятая глава

accurate to five decimal places — с точностью до пяти знаков

a matter of five pounds — вопрос пяти фунтов или около того

the temperature is five above — сейчас пять градусов тепла

to trot five kilometres — пройти рысью пять километров

the banding of the five groups — объединение пяти групп

3. n пять, пятеро

in fives — по пяти, пятёрками

it is five miles to the station — до станции пять миль

five copies are lacking — недостаёт пяти экземпляров

to take away five from seven — из семи вычесть пять

he is five feet nothing — его рост ровно пять футов

a poem of five verses — стихотворение из пяти строф

4. n пять лет

he is five — ему пять лет

five books — пять книг

five sixths — пять шестых

under five — моложе 5 лет

five ninths — пять девятых

Group of Five — Группа пяти

5. n пять часов

she will come at five — она придёт в пять

five years of age — пяти лет

the five senses — пять чувств

five grand — пять тысяч долларов

five twelfths — пять двенадцатых

five pack — упаковка по пять штук

6. n «могучая кучка»

7. n команда из пяти человек

two hundred and twenty five — двести двадцать пять

to serve a term of five years — отсидеть пять лет

difference of five pounds — разница в пять фунтов

to publish five titles — опубликовать пять книг

the five parts of the world — пять частей света

8. n разг. пять пальцев, пятерня

he handles his fives very well — он ловко действует своей пятернёй

five pieces of candy — пять конфет

five yoke of oxen — пять пар волов

five years from now — через пять лет

Five Nations — конфедерация пяти племён

five point six — пять целых шесть десятых

9. n пятипроцентные акции или ценные бумаги

10. n банкнота в пять фунтов стерлингов или в пять долларов

five of a kind — рука из четырёх карт одного наименования и одной лишней

four or five miles — четыре или пять миль

I make it five miles — по-моему, пять миль

dinner of five courses — обед из пяти блюд

five degrees of frost — пять градусов мороза

five rotations an hour — пять оборотов в час

English-Russian base dictionary > five
3 twenty

1. n двадцать предметов или человек

in twenties — по двадцати

he is twenty years old — ему двадцать лет

twenty questions — игра «двадцать вопросов»

twenty times as much — в двадцать раз больше

two hundred and twenty five — двести двадцать пять

ten votes to twenty — десять голосов против двадцати

2. n двадцатый размер

to wear a twenty — носить двадцатый размер

3. n двадцать лет

he is twenty — ему двадцать лет

he must be under twenty — ему ещё нет двадцати

he is not far off twenty, he is getting on for twenty — ему скоро будет двадцать лет

a salute of twenty guns — салют двадцатью орудийными залпами

we numbered twenty in all — всего нас было двадцать человек

to arrive at the age of twenty — достигнуть двадцати лет

he was given twenty lashes — он получил двадцать ударов

they are twenty in number — их двадцать

4. n двадцатидолларовая банкнота; двадцатифунтовая банкнота

5. num двадцать, двадцатый

chapter twenty — двадцатая глава

they are twenty — их двадцать

twenty books — двадцать книг

twenty odd — двадцать с лишним

Group of Twenty — Группа двадцати

twenty police — двадцать полицейских

English-Russian base dictionary > twenty
4 age qualification

юр., пол. возрастной ценз (возрастное ограничение на осуществление какой-л. деятельности или реализацию какого-л. права, напр., на участие в голосовании, выдвижение своей кандидатуры на государственный пост и т. п.)

Age qualification for the chamber of deputies is twenty-five and for the senate forty years. — Возрастной ценз для палаты депутатов во Франции — 25 лет, для Сената — 40 лет.

See:

age limit

* * *

возрастной ценз

Англо-русский экономический словарь > age qualification
5 old

old [əʊld]

vieux ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (e), 2 âgé de ⇒ 1 (c) ancien ⇒ 1 (d)

(compar older, superl oldest)

1 adjective

(a) (not new or recent) vieux (vieille);

∎ the old traditions of the countryside les vieilles traditions campagnardes;

∎ there's an old saying that… il y a un vieux dicton qui dit que…;

∎ it's hard to shake off old habits on ne se débarrasse pas facilement de ses vieilles habitudes;

∎ not that old excuse again! tu ne vas pas/il ne va pas/ etc ressortir encore une fois la même excuse!;

∎ they're old friends ce sont de vieux amis ou des amis de longue date;

∎ he's an old friend of mine c'est un de mes vieux amis;

∎ to go over old ground revenir sur un terrain déjà parcouru;

∎ an old debt une dette de longue date;

∎ that's an old dodge c'est un coup classique;

∎ the old country la mère patrie

(b) (not young) vieux (vieille);

∎ an old man un vieil homme;

∎ an old woman une vieille femme;

∎ I don't like that old man/woman je n'aime pas ce vieux/cette vieille;

∎ old people personnes fpl âgées;

∎ the old people next door le couple âgé qui habite à côté, familiar les vieux qui habitent à côté;

∎ to get or grow old vieillir;

∎ who will look after me in my old age? qui s'occupera de moi quand je serai vieux?;

∎ I've got a little money put aside for my old age j'ai quelques économies de côté pour mes vieux jours;

∎ old people's home maison f de retraite

(c) (referring to a particular age)

∎ how old is she? quel âge a-t-elle?;

∎ to be old enough to do sth être en âge de faire qch;

∎ she's old enough to know better elle ne devrait plus faire ce genre de chose à son âge;

∎ he's old enough to look after himself il est (bien) assez grand pour se débrouiller tout seul;

∎ he's old enough to be my father! il pourrait être mon père!;

∎ you're as old as you feel on a l'âge de ses artères;

∎ she is older than I am elle est plus âgée ou vieille que moi;

∎ she's two years older than him elle a deux ans de plus que lui;

∎ my boy wants to be a soldier when he's older mon fils veut être soldat quand il sera grand;

∎ the older generation la vieille génération;

∎ my older sister ma sœur aînée;

∎ the oldest of the tribe l'aîné(e) m,f de la tribu;

∎ she's six months/twenty-five years old elle a six mois/vingt-cinq ans, elle est âgée de six mois/vingt-cinq ans;

∎ at six years old à (l'âge de) six ans;

∎ they have a fourteen-year-old boy ils ont un garçon de quatorze ans;

∎ a three-day-old baby un bébé de trois jours

(d) (former) ancien;

∎ that's my old address c'est mon ancienne adresse;

∎ an old admirer of hers un de ses anciens admirateurs;

∎ an old Etonian un ancien élève d'Eton;

∎ in the old days autrefois, jadis;

∎ the good old days le bon vieux temps;

∎ he went to my old school il a fréquenté mon ancienne école;

∎ of the old school de la vieille école;

∎ a writer of the old school un écrivain de la vieille école

(e) familiar (expressing familiarity or affection) vieux (vieille), brave;

∎ old Jimmy wants to speak to you le vieux Jimmy veut te parler;

∎ good old Frank! ce (bon) vieux Frank!;

∎ old-fashioned hello, old thing or chap! salut, mon vieux ou ma vieille branche!

(f) familiar (as intensifier)

∎ it's a funny old life! la vie est drôle, quand même!;

∎ very familiar you old bastard! espèce de salaud!;

∎ silly old bat espèce de vieille folle!;

∎ we had a fine old time nous avons passé un sacré bon moment;

∎ any old bit of wood will do n'importe quel vieux bout de bois fera l'affaire^□ ;

∎ any old how n'importe comment^□ ;

∎ I just wear any old thing to do the gardening je porte n'importe quel vieux truc pour jardiner;

∎ he's not just any old scientist, he's a Nobel prizewinner ce n'est pas n'importe quel scientifique, c'est un prix Nobel^□

2 plural noun

∎ the old les vieux mpl

3 of old adverb

(a) literary (of former times)

∎ in days of old autrefois, jadis;

∎ the knights of old les chevaliers du temps jadis ou de jadis

(b) (for a long time)

∎ I know them of old je les connais depuis longtemps

►► British old age pension (pension f de) retraite f;

British old age pensioner retraité(e) m,f;

the Old Bailey = la cour d'assises de Londres;

British old boy (former pupil) ancien élève m; familiar (old man) vieux m; familiar old-fashioned (form of address) mon vieux;

∎ he's a nice old boy c'est un vieux monsieur charmant;

British familiar old boy network = contacts privilégiés entre anciens élèves d'un même établissement privé;

∎ he got the job through the old boy network il a obtenu ce poste en faisant jouer ses relations^□ ;

British familiar old dear (elderly woman) grand-mère f; (mother) vieille f;

the Old Dominion State = surnom donné à la Virginie;

old gold (colour) vieil or m inv;

Old English vieil anglais m;

Old English sheepdog bobtail m;

Old Faithful = geyser naturel dans le parc national de Yellowstone;

British familiar the Old Firm = appellation collective des deux grandes équipes de football de Glasgow, Celtic et Rangers;

old flame ancien béguin m;

Old French ancien français m;

British old girl (former pupil) ancienne élève f; familiar (old woman) vieille f; familiar old-fashioned (form of address) ma chère, chère amie;

∎ she's a nice old girl c'est une vieille dame charmante;

American Old Glory = surnom du drapeau américain;

old guard vieille garde f;

old hand vieux routier m, vétéran m;

∎ he's an old hand at flying these planes cela fait des années qu'il pilote ces avions;

familiar old hat dépassé^□, vieux (vieille)^□ ;

Old High German ancien haut allemand m;

Old Labour = appellation populaire du parti travailliste avant le passage au New Labour, insistant sur le fait qu'il se situait alors plus à gauche sur l'échiquier politique;

familiar old lady (wife) bourgeoise f; (mother) vieille f;

British familiar old lag truand m;

the Old Line State = surnom donné au Maryland;

old maid vieille fille f;

familiar old man (husband) homme m, jules m; (father) vieux m; British old-fashioned (form of address) mon cher, cher ami;

American Old Man River = surnom donné au Mississippi;

Botany old man's beard (Clematis vitalba) clématite f des haies, clématite f vigne blanche;

old master (painter) grand maître m (de la peinture); (painting) tableau m de maître;

old money (before decimalization) ancien système m monétaire;

∎ 10 shillings in old money 10 shillings dans l'ancien système monétaire;

∎ he married into old money (wealth) il a épousé une riche héritière;

old moon vieille lune f;

familiar Old Nick Satan^□ m, Lucifer^□ m;

Linguistics Old Norse vieux norrois m;

Linguistics Old Persian vieux perse m;

British History the Old Pretender le Prétendant (surnom de Jacques Édouard Stuart (1688-1766), fils du roi Jacques II d'Angleterre, qui lutta en vain pour devenir roi de Grande-Bretagne);

British old school tie (garment) cravate f aux couleurs de son ancienne école; figurative pejorative = attitudes et système de valeurs typiques des anciens élèves des écoles privées britanniques;

old stager vieux routier m, vétéran m;

Bible Old Testament Ancien Testament m;

Old Trafford (cricket ground) = terrain de cricket à Manchester; (football ground) = terrain de football à Manchester;

Old Vic = surnom du Royal Victoria Theatre à Londres;

old wives' tale conte m de bonne femme;

familiar old woman (wife) patronne f, bourgeoise f; (mother) vieille f; figurative pejorative (timid, fussy man) chochotte f;

∎ he's such an old woman il est comme une petite vieille;

the Old World l'Ancien Monde m

✾ Book 'The Old Curiosity Shop' Dickens 'Le Magasin d'antiquités'

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > old
6 of

prep. van; in; op

of

[ ə(v), 〈 sterk〉 ov]

1 〈afstand in plaats of tijd; ook figuurlijk〉 van ⇒ van … vandaan

2 〈 herkomst, reden〉 (afkomstig) van ⇒ uit, (veroorzaakt/gemaakt) door

3 〈 samenstelling, inhoud, hoeveelheid〉 bestaande uit ⇒ van

4 betreffende ⇒ over, van, met betrekking tot

5 〈 identificerend kenmerk, zoals hoedanigheid, plaats, tijd, ouderdom enz.〉 van ⇒ te, bij, met

6 〈bezit; ook figuurlijk〉 van ⇒ behorend tot

7 〈 voorwerpsgenitief〉 van ⇒ tot, naar, voor

8 〈 partitieve genitief〉 van ⇒ onder, der

9 〈relatie individu-klasse; onvertaald〉

10 〈 identiteit〉 van

11 〈 tijd〉op ⇒ des

12 〈tijd; Amerikaans-Engels〉 voor

♦voorbeelden:

1   south of the city • ten zuiden van de stad

     rob someone of his happiness • iemand van zijn geluk beroven

     upwards of an hour • meer dan een uur

     go wide of the mark • ver naast het doel schieten

     within a month of their wedding • minder dan een maand voor/na hun huwelijk

     it fell within four inches of her • het viel geen tien centimeter van haar vandaan

2   of my own choice • zelf gekozen

     produce of France • Frans product

     that's too much to ask of Jane • dat is te veel van Jane gevraagd

     of necessity • uit noodzaak

     die of shame • doodgaan van schaamte

     it tastes of sugar • het smaakt naar suiker

     a dress of her own making • een zelfgemaakte jurk

     of itself • vanzelf, uit zichzelf

     that's sweet of you • dat is lief van je

3   a plate of beans • een bord bonen

     a distance of 50 km • een afstand van 50 km

     a gown of silk • een zijden gewaad

     they had a hard time of it • ze hebben het hard te verduren gehad

4   five years of age • vijf jaar oud

     the truth of the story • de waarheid over dit verhaal

     quick of understanding • snel van begrip

5   men of courage • mannen met moed

     a girl of infinite good humour • een meisje dat altijd goedgehumeurd is

     a child of six • een kind van zes jaar

     the battle of Waterloo • de slag bij Waterloo

     be of importance/value • van belang/waarde zijn, belang/waarde hebben

6   a book of May's • een boek van May, een van Mays boeken

     look at that sweater of hers! • kijk eens naar die trui van d'r!

7   fear of the dark • angst voor het donker

     love of nature • liefde voor de natuur

     in pursuit of success • op zoek naar succes

8   a pound of flour • een pond bloem

     none of his friends • geen van zijn vrienden

     of all the impudence! • wat een brutaliteit!

     twenty years of marriage • twintig jaar huwelijk

     you of all people! • uitgerekend/juist jij!

     five of us • vijf mensen van/uit onze groep

9   the name of Jones • de naam Jones

     the Isle of Man • het eiland Man

     the month of May • de maand mei

10 an angel of a husband • een engel van een man

11 they like to go out of an evening • ze gaan graag eens een avondje uit

12 a quarter of the hour • een kwartier vóór het uur

English-Dutch dictionary > of
7 Clymer, George E.

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

b. 1754 Bucks County, Pennsylvania, USA

d. 27 August 1834 London, England

[br]

American inventor of the Columbian printing press.

[br]

Clymer was born on his father's farm, of a family that emigrated from Switzerland in the early eighteenth century. He attended local schools, helping out on the farm in his spare time, and he showed a particular talent for maintaining farm machinery. At the age of 16 he learned the trade of carpenter and joiner, which he followed in the same district for over twenty-five years. During that time, he showed his talent for mechanical invention in many ways, including the invention of a plough specially adapted to the local soils. Around 1800, he moved to Philadelphia, where his interest was aroused by the erection of the first bridge over the Schuylkill River. He devised a pump to remove water from the cofferdams at a rate of 500 gallons per day, superior to any other pumps then in use. He obtained a US patent for this in 1801, and a British one soon after.

Clymer then turned his attention to the improvement of the printing press. For three and a half centuries after its invention, the old wooden-framed press had remained virtually unchanged except in detail. The first real change came in 1800 with the introduction of the iron press by Earl Stanhope. Modified versions were developed by other inventors, notably George Clymer, who after more than ten years' effort achieved his Columbian press. With its new system of levers, it enabled perfect impressions to be obtained with far less effort by the pressman. The Columbian was also notable for its distinctive cast-iron ornamentation, including a Hermes on each pillar and alligators and other reptiles on the levers. Most spectacular, it was surmounted by an American spread eagle, usually covered in gilt, which also served as a counterweight to raise the platen. The earliest known Columbian, surviving only in an illustration, bears the inscription Columbian Press/No.25/invented by George Clymer/Anno Domini 1813/Made in Philadelphia 1816. Few American printers could afford the US$400 selling price, so in 1817 Clymer went to England, where it was taken up enthusiastically. He obtained a British patent for it the same year, and by the following March it was being manufactured by the engineering firm R.W.Cope, although Clymer was probably making it on his own account soon afterwards. The Columbian was widely used for many years and continued to be made even into the twentieth century. The King of the Netherlands awarded Clymer a gold medal for his invention and the Tsar of Russia gave him a present for installing the press in Russia. Doubtless for business reasons, Clymer spent most of his remaining years in England and Europe.

[br]

Further Reading

J.Moran, 1973, Printing Presses, London: Faber \& Faber.

—1969, contributed a thorough survey of the press in J. Printing Hist. Soc., no. 3.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Clymer, George E.
8 Hoe, Richard March

SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing

[br]

b. 12 September 1812 New York, USA

d. 7 June 1886 Florence, Italy

[br]

American inventor of the rotary printing press.

[br]

He was the son of Robert Hoe, a printer who improved the cylinder press invented by David Napier. At the age of 15 he entered his father's business, taking full control of it three years later. Newspaper publishers demanded ever-increasing speeds of output from the printing press, and Hoe was one of those who realized that the speed was limited by the reciprocating action of the flat-bed machine. In 1846 he constructed a rotary press in which a central cylinder carried the type and flat sheets of paper were fed to smaller impression cylinders ranged around it. This kind of press, with four impression cylinders, was first used to print the Philadelphia Public Ledger in 1847, and was able to print 8,000 papers per hour. Such presses reigned supreme for newspaper printing in many countries for twenty-five years: in 1857, for example, The Times had a ten-feeder machine making 20,000 impressions per hour. Even so, the quest for speed, now limited by the single-sheet feed, continued. William Bullock (1813–67) introduced continuous roll or web feed for the Philadelphia Inquirer in 1865, and the next year The Times followed suit with the web-fed Walter press. In 1871 Hoe devised a machine that combined all the advantages of the existing machines, producing a rotary, web, perfecting (printing on both sides of the paper at once) machine, first used in the office of the New York Tribune. Ten years later the Hoe Company devised a folding machine to fold the copies as they came off the press: the modern newspaper printing press had arrived. In addition to his contributions to the printing industry, Hoe was a good employer, arranging free evening classes and other welfare services for his apprentices.

[br]

Further Reading

R.Hoe, 1902, A Short History of the Printing Press, New York. S.D.Tucker, A History of K.Hoe \& Co. New York.

LRD

Biographical history of technology > Hoe, Richard March
9 mainframe

= mainframe computer

мэйнфрейм, редко мейнфрейм

главный компьютер вычислительного центра. Обычно это многопользовательская большая, супермини-или мини-ЭВМ. Термин первоначально (в 1950-х годах) относился к металлической стойке (шкафу) с центральным процессором "main frame".

"Today's desktop computers are far more powerful than the mainframe computers of twenty-five years ago" (Bob Frankston). — Современные настольные ПК значительно превосходят по вычислительной мощности мэйнфреймы 25-летней давности см. тж. computer, Iron Age, minicomputer, number crunching, personal computer, supercomputer

Англо-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > mainframe
10 Cayley, Sir George

SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace

[br]

b. 27 December 1773 Scarborough, England

d. 15 December 1857 Brompton Hall, Yorkshire, England

[br]

English pioneer who laid down the basic principles of the aeroplane in 1799 and built a manned glider in 1853.

[br]

Cayley was born into a well-to-do Yorkshire family living at Brompton Hall. He was encouraged to study mathematics, navigation and mechanics, particularly by his mother. In 1792 he succeeded to the baronetcy and took over the daunting task of revitalizing the run-down family estate.

The first aeronautical device made by Cayley was a copy of the toy helicopter invented by the Frenchmen Launoy and Bienvenu in 1784. Cayley's version, made in 1796, convinced him that a machine could "rise in the air by mechanical means", as he later wrote. He studied the aerodynamics of flight and broke away from the unsuccessful ornithopters of his predecessors. In 1799 he scratched two sketches on a silver disc: one side of the disc showed the aerodynamic force on a wing resolved into lift and drag, and on the other side he illustrated his idea for a fixed-wing aeroplane; this disc is preserved in the Science Museum in London. In 1804 he tested a small wing on the end of a whirling arm to measure its lifting power. This led to the world's first model glider, which consisted of a simple kite (the wing) mounted on a pole with an adjustable cruciform tail. A full-size glider followed in 1809 and this flew successfully unmanned. By 1809 Cayley had also investigated the lifting properties of cambered wings and produced a low-drag aerofoil section. His aim was to produce a powered aeroplane, but no suitable engines were available. Steam-engines were too heavy, but he experimented with a gunpowder motor and invented the hot-air engine in 1807. He published details of some of his aeronautical researches in 1809–10 and in 1816 he wrote a paper on airships. Then for a period of some twenty-five years he was so busy with other activities that he largely neglected his aeronautical researches. It was not until 1843, at the age of 70, that he really had time to pursue his quest for flight. The Mechanics' Magazine of 8 April 1843 published drawings of "Sir George Cayley's Aerial Carriage", which consisted of a helicopter design with four circular lifting rotors—which could be adjusted to become wings—and two pusher propellers. In 1849 he built a full-size triplane glider which lifted a boy off the ground for a brief hop. Then in 1852 he proposed a monoplane glider which could be launched from a balloon. Late in 1853 Cayley built his "new flyer", another monoplane glider, which carried his coachman as a reluctant passenger across a dale at Brompton, Cayley became involved in public affairs and was MP for Scarborough in 1832. He also took a leading part in local scientific activities and was co-founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1831 and of the Regent Street Polytechnic Institution in 1838.

[br]

Bibliography

Cayley wrote a number of articles and papers, the most significant being "On aerial navigation", Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy (November 1809—March 1810) (published in three numbers); and two further papers with the same title in Philosophical Magazine (1816 and 1817) (both describe semi-rigid airships).

Further Reading

L.Pritchard, 1961, Sir George Cayley, London (the standard work on the life of Cayley).

C.H.Gibbs-Smith, 1962, Sir George Cayley's Aeronautics 1796–1855, London (covers his aeronautical achievements in more detail).

—1974, "Sir George Cayley, father of aerial navigation (1773–1857)", Aeronautical Journal (Royal Aeronautical Society) (April) (an updating paper).

JDS

Biographical history of technology > Cayley, Sir George
11 past

1. adjective
1) (just finished: the past year.) pasado

2) (over, finished or ended, of an earlier time than the present: The time for discussion is past.) pasado

3) ((of the tense of a verb) indicating action in the past: In `He did it', the verb is in the past tense.) pasado

2. preposition
1) (up to and beyond; by: He ran past me.) por delante de

2) (after: It's past six o'clock.) pasadas

3. adverb
(up to and beyond (a particular place, person etc): The soldiers marched past.) por delante (de)

4. noun
1) (a person's earlier life or career, especially if secret or not respectable: He never spoke about his past.) pasado

2) (the past tense: a verb in the past.) pasado

•

- the past

past¹ adj último

the past few days los últimos días

past² adv

she ran past pasó corriendo

past³ n pasado

life in the past was hard la vida en el pasado era dura

past⁴ prep

1.

go past the church and it's on your right pasa la iglesia y está a la derecha

he ran past the door pasó corriendo por delante de la puerta

2. y

it's a quarter past ten son las diez y cuarto

3. más de

it's past nine o'clock son las nueve pasadas / son más de las nueve

past

tr[pɑːst]

adjective

1 (gone by in time) pasado,-a; (former) anterior

■ past presidents los anteriores presidentes

2 (gone by recently) último,-a

■ the past few days los últimos días

3 (finished, over) acabado,-a, terminado,-a

■ summer is past el verano ha terminado

■ the danger is past el peligro ha pasado

4 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL pasado,-a

■ the past tense el pasado, el pretérito

noun

1 (former times) pasado

■ in the past en el pasado, antes, antiguamente

■ that's all in the past now eso ya es historia

■ typewriters are a thing of the past las máquinas de escribir pertenecen al pasado

2 (of person) pasado; (of place) historia

preposition

1 (farther than, beyond) más allá de; (by the side of) por (delante de)

■ it's just past the cinema está un poco más allá del cine

■ she walked past the school pasó por delante de la escuela

■ he walked straight past me pasó de largo por mi lado

2 (in time) y

■ it's five past six son las seis y cinco

■ it's half past nine son las nieve y media

3 (older than) más de

■ he's past forty pasa de los cuarenta (años)

■ she's past retirement age ya ha pasado la edad de la jubilación

4 (beyond the limits of)

■ it's past my comprehension me resulta incomprensible

■ I'm past caring me trae sin cuidado

■ I wouldn't put it past him no me extrañaría que lo hiciera, no me extraña tratándose de él

adverb

1

■ they went past without stopping pasaron de largo

■ a few joggers ran past pasaron unos haciendo footing

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

in times past antaño, antiguamente

to be a past master at something ser experto,-a en algo

to be past it estar para el arrastre, estar muy carroza

the past / the past tense el pasado, el pretérito

past ['pæst] adv

: por delante

he drove past: pasamos en coche

past adj

1) ago: hace

10 years past: hace 10 años

2) last: último

the past few months: los últimos meses

3) bygone: pasado

in past times: en tiempos pasados

4) : pasado (en gramática)

past n

: pasado m

past prep

1) by: por, por delante de

he ran past the house: pasó por la casa corriendo

2) beyond: más allá de

just past the corner: un poco más allá de la esquina

we went past the exit: pasamos la salida

3) after: despúes de

past noon: después del mediodía

half past two: las dos y media

past (Grammar)

n.

• imperfecto s.m.

• pretérito s.m.

adj.

• acabado, -a adj.

• pasado, -a adj.

• último, -a adj.

adv.

• atrás adv.

• más allá adv.

n.

• antecedentes s.m.pl.

• historia s.f.

• pasado s.m.

• pretérito s.m.

prep.

• después de prep.

I pæst, pɑːst
adjective

1)

a) ( former) anterior; < life> pasado; ( old) antiguo

she knew from past experience that... — sabía por experiencia que...

in times past — (liter) antaño (liter), años ha (liter), antiguamente

b) ( most recent) <week/month/year> último

in the past few days — en los últimos días

for some time past — desde hace tiempo

c) (finished, gone) (pred)

what's past is past — lo pasado, pasado

in days long past — en tiempos remotos

2) ( Ling)

the past tense — el pasado, el pretérito

II

noun

1)

a) u ( former times) pasado m

steam trains are a thing of the past — las locomotoras de vapor han pasado a la historia

in the past, women... — antes or antiguamente or en otros tiempos las mujeres...

that's all in the past — eso forma parte del pasado, eso ya es historia

b) c ( of person) pasado m; ( of place) historia f

2) u ( Ling) pasado m, pretérito m

III

preposition

1)

a) ( by the side of)

I go past their house every morning — paso por (delante de) su casa todas las mañanas

she walked straight past him — pasó de largo por su lado

b) ( beyond)

it's just past the school — queda un poco más allá de la escuela

how did you get past the guard? — ¿cómo hiciste para que el guardia te dejara pasar?

the second turning past the lights — la segunda calle después del semáforo

2)

a) ( after) (esp BrE)

it's ten past six/half past two — son las seis y diez/las dos y media

it was past eleven — eran las once pasadas

it's long past midnight — son mucho más de las doce

till past midnight — hasta después de la medianoche

it's past your bedtime — ya deberías estar acostado

b) ( older than)

once you get past 40... — después de los 40..., una vez pasados los 40...

I'm past the age/stage when... — ya he pasado la edad/superado la etapa en que...

3) (outside, beyond)

to be past -ing: I'm past caring ya no me importa; I wouldn't put it past her no me extrañaría que lo hiciera, la creo muy capaz de hacerlo; to be past it (colloq): they think everyone over 40 is past it — piensan que cualquiera que tenga más de 40 ya está para el arrastre (fam) or para cuarteles de invierno

IV

adverb

a) ( with verbs of motion)

to fly/cycle/drive past — pasar volando/en bicicleta/en coche

he hurried past — pasó a toda prisa

we watched the troops march past — vimos desfilar a las tropas

b) ( giving time) (esp BrE)

it's twenty-five past — son y veinticinco

[pɑːst]
1. ADV

1) (in place)

she walked slowly past — pasó despacio

• the days flew past — los días pasaron volando

• to march past — desfilar

• to run/ rush past — pasar corriendo/precipitadamente

2) (in time)

it's ten past — son y diez

I've been waiting since half past — llevo esperando desde y media

2. PREP

1) (in place)

a) (=passing by) por delante de

we went past your house — pasamos por delante de tu casa

we drove past a flock of sheep — pasamos al lado de un rebaño de ovejas con el coche

b) (=beyond) más allá de

just past the town hall — un poco más allá del Ayuntamiento

it's the first house past the park — es la primera casa después del parque

• first you have to get past a fierce dog — antes de entrar vas a tener que vértelas con un perro fiero

we couldn't get past the crowds of people — no pudimos abrirnos paso entre la muchedumbre

• she just pushed past me — pasó pegándome un empujón

• to run past sb — pasar a algn corriendo

2) (in time)

quarter/half past four — las cuatro y cuarto/media

at twenty past four — a las cuatro y veinte

it's past twelve — son las doce pasadas

it's long past the time he normally gets back — él normalmente hubiese llegado hace tiempo

• it's past your bedtime — ya tenías que estar durmiendo

3) (=beyond the limits of)

he's past 40 — tiene más de 40 años

it's past mending — ya no tiene remedio

• it's past belief — es increíble

• I'm past caring — ya me trae sin cuidado

• it's past endurance — es intolerable

- be past it

those jeans are a bit past it — esos vaqueros ya están como para jubilarlos *

- I wouldn't put it past him

3. ADJ

1) (=previous) [occasion] anterior

• past experience tells me not to trust him — sé por experiencia que no debo fiarme de él

• I'm not interested in his past life — no me interesa su pasado

we must have met in a past life — seguro que nos hemos conocido en una vida anterior

• in past years — en años anteriores

2) (=former) antiguo

past president of... — antiguo presidente de..., ex presidente de...

her past and present pupils — sus alumnos de ayer y de hoy

3) (=most recent, last) último

the past few weeks have been hell — las últimas semanas han sido un verdadero infierno

she has got worse in the past few days — su condición ha empeorado en los últimos días

what has happened over the past week/year? — ¿qué ha pasado en la última semana/el último año?

4) (=over)

all that is past now — todo eso ya ha pasado, todo eso ya ha quedado atrás

what's past is past — lo pasado, pasado (está)

those days are past now — aquellos tiempos pasaron ya

• for some time past — de un tiempo a esta parte

• in times past — antiguamente, antaño liter

4. N

1) (=past times)

the past — el pasado

you mustn't dwell on the past — no debes pensar demasiado en el pasado

you can't change the past — no puedes cambiar el pasado

• in the past it was considered bad manners to... — antes or antiguamente se consideraba de mala educación hacer...

I've always done it like this in the past — yo siempre lo he hecho así

• you're living in the past — estás viviendo en el pasado

• it's a thing of the past — pertenece a la historia

2) [of person] pasado m; [of place] historia f

a woman with a past — una mujer con pasado

a town with a past — una ciudad con historia

3) (Ling) pasado m, pretérito m

5.

CPD

past master N (Brit) —

- be a past master at

past participle N — (Ling) participio m pasado or pasivo

past perfect N — (Ling) pluscuamperfecto m

past tense N — (Ling) (tiempo m) pasado m

* * *

I [pæst, pɑːst]
adjective

1)

a) ( former) anterior; < life> pasado; ( old) antiguo

she knew from past experience that... — sabía por experiencia que...

in times past — (liter) antaño (liter), años ha (liter), antiguamente

b) ( most recent) <week/month/year> último

in the past few days — en los últimos días

for some time past — desde hace tiempo

c) (finished, gone) (pred)

what's past is past — lo pasado, pasado

in days long past — en tiempos remotos

2) ( Ling)

the past tense — el pasado, el pretérito

II

noun

1)

a) u ( former times) pasado m

steam trains are a thing of the past — las locomotoras de vapor han pasado a la historia

in the past, women... — antes or antiguamente or en otros tiempos las mujeres...

that's all in the past — eso forma parte del pasado, eso ya es historia

b) c ( of person) pasado m; ( of place) historia f

2) u ( Ling) pasado m, pretérito m

III

preposition

1)

a) ( by the side of)

I go past their house every morning — paso por (delante de) su casa todas las mañanas

she walked straight past him — pasó de largo por su lado

b) ( beyond)

it's just past the school — queda un poco más allá de la escuela

how did you get past the guard? — ¿cómo hiciste para que el guardia te dejara pasar?

the second turning past the lights — la segunda calle después del semáforo

2)

a) ( after) (esp BrE)

it's ten past six/half past two — son las seis y diez/las dos y media

it was past eleven — eran las once pasadas

it's long past midnight — son mucho más de las doce

till past midnight — hasta después de la medianoche

it's past your bedtime — ya deberías estar acostado

b) ( older than)

once you get past 40... — después de los 40..., una vez pasados los 40...

I'm past the age/stage when... — ya he pasado la edad/superado la etapa en que...

3) (outside, beyond)

to be past -ing: I'm past caring ya no me importa; I wouldn't put it past her no me extrañaría que lo hiciera, la creo muy capaz de hacerlo; to be past it (colloq): they think everyone over 40 is past it — piensan que cualquiera que tenga más de 40 ya está para el arrastre (fam) or para cuarteles de invierno

IV

adverb

a) ( with verbs of motion)

to fly/cycle/drive past — pasar volando/en bicicleta/en coche

he hurried past — pasó a toda prisa

we watched the troops march past — vimos desfilar a las tropas

b) ( giving time) (esp BrE)

it's twenty-five past — son y veinticinco

English-spanish dictionary > past
12 исполняться

I
1. несовер. - исполняться;
совер. - исполниться возвр. (осуществляться) be fulfilled мое желание исполнилось ≈ my wish has been fulfilled
2. несовер. - исполняться;
совер. - исполниться возвр.;
безл. (о годах): ему исполнилось 20 лет ≈ he is twenty years of age, he was twenty last birthday завтра ему исполнится 20 лет ≈ he will be twenty tomorrow исполнилось два года с тех пор, как он уехал ≈ two years have passed since he left, two years have gone by since he left, it is two years since he left II несовер.;
возвр.;
(чего-л.;
чем-л.) ;
совер. исполниться;
уст. (наполняться) fill (with), be suffused( with) мое сердце исполнилось жалостью ≈ my heart (was) filled with pity III страд. от исполнять

come true ;
(age) be: emy ~илось пять лет: hi is five ;
(period) pass (since кaк) ;

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > исполняться
13 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
14 of

əv
preposition

1) (belonging to: a friend of mine.) av

2) (away from (a place etc); after (a given time): within five miles of London; within a year of his death.) fra, etter

3) (written etc by: the plays of Shakespeare.) av

4) (belonging to or forming a group: He is one of my friends.) av

5) (showing: a picture of my father.) av

6) (made from; consisting of: a dress of silk; a collection of pictures.) av

7) (used to show an amount, measurement of something: a gallon of petrol; five bags of coal.) med, à

8) (about: an account of his work.) om

9) (containing: a box of chocolates.) med, av

10) (used to show a cause: She died of hunger.) av, fra

11) (used to show a loss or removal: She was robbed of her jewels.) fra-, av

12) (used to show the connection between an action and its object: the smoking of a cigarette.) av

13) (used to show character, qualities etc: a man of courage.) med, av

14) ((American) (of time) a certain number of minutes before (the hour): It's ten minutes of three.) på, før

om

prep. \/ɒv\/, trykksvakəv\/ eller \/v\/, foran ubetont konsonant: \/f\/

1) ( om forholdet mellom en del og en helhet) av, fra

• I have a hole in the sleeve of my shirt

jeg har et hull i skjorteermet mitt

• she's of a good family

hun er av god familie

• I'm a native of London

jeg er en innfødt londoner

2) (etter et tall eller bestemmelsesfaktor, av og til uten oversettelse til norsk) med, om, av, blant

• he felt two pairs of eyes staring at him

han følte to par øyne på seg

• there were only six of us

vi var bare seks

• would you like a cup of tea?

vil du ha en kopp te?

• the dog stole a piece of bread

hunden stjal en brødbit

• they saw a number of poor people

de så mange fattige mennesker

• he didn't know a word of Spanish

han kunne ikke et ord spansk

• the whole of Wales was there

hele Wales var der

• most of them came

de fleste (av dem) kom

• some of them hate us

noen av dem hater oss

• they continued after a short period of rest

de fortsatte etter en kort hvil

• the law of demand and supply

loven om tilbud og etterspørsel

3) ( om retning eller sted) fra, for

• the clock is on the left of the window

klokken henger til venstre for vinduet

• she's from the county of Yorkshire

hun er fra grevskapet Yorkshire

• have you met Professor Smith of Cambridge?

har du truffet professor Smith fra Cambridge

• the pub is within a mile of Hull

puben ligger mindre enn en mil fra Hull

• it was found on the Isle of Wight

den ble funnet på Isle Wight

• I live north of York

jeg bor nord for York

• the University of London is a popular school

Londonuniversitetet er en populær skole

• she's from the city of London

hun er fra London by

4) ( om forbindelsen mellom to enheter eller eiendomsforhold) med, i, av, etter, fra, for

• he's a man of foreign appearance

han er en mann med utenlandsk utseende

• she has a coat of many colours

hun har en jakke i mange farger

• these are tomatoes of my own growing

dette er tomater jeg har dyrket selv

• the hour of prayer starts now

bønnetimen starter nå

• I'm reading a novel of Stevenson's

jeg leser en roman av Stevenson

• he's a friend of John Smith's

han er en av John Smiths venner

• she's a friend of mine

hun er en venn av meg

• she's the widow of a clergyman

hun er enken etter en prest

• he's a novelist of the 18th century

han er en romanforfatter fra det 18. århundre

5) ( om forholdet mellom et abstrakt begrep og et etterfølgende objekt) fra, for, av, i, på

• his explanation of the passage was clear

hans forklaring på avsnittet var klar

• she hates the ringing of bells

hun hater at det ringer i klokkene

• the murder of Mr Cerio shocked them all

mordet på herr Cerio sjokkerte dem alle

• in the opinion of the teachers, this is wrong

etter lærernes mening er dette galt

• it was kind of you

det var snilt av deg

• he felt forsaken of God and men

han følte seg forlatt av Gud og mennesker

• he's proud of what he did

han er stolt av det han gjorde

• I'm afraid of huge dogs

jeg er redd for store hunder

• it's wide of the truth

det er langt fra sannheten

6) (om forholdet mellom et verb og et etterfølgende objekt der verbet uttrykker en mental eller abstrakt tilstand) fra, etter, om, på

• he cleared himself of the accusation

han renvasket seg for beskyldningen

• he died within a week of his departure

han døde innen en uke etter at han hadde dratt

• they read of the war

de leste om krigen

• inform her of the riots

underrett henne om opptøyene

• just think of the consequences!

bare tenk på konsekvensene!

• she asked a favour of me

hun bad meg om en tjeneste

• he deprived me of my liberty

han berøvet meg friheten

• I was robbed of my silverware

jeg ble frastjålet sølvtøyet mitt

7) ( om årsak eller motiv) av

• she died of grief

hun døde av sorg

• my aunt died of cancer

tanten min døde av kreft

• you smell of tobacco

du lukter tobakk

8) ( om forholdet mellom en skala eller målestokk og en verdi) på, med, à

• the sales will decrease of 5%

salget vil gå ned med 5%

• the well has a depth of ten feet

brønnen er ti fot dyp

• we're a group of five

vi er en gruppe på fem

• ten cartons of twenty packets each

ti kartonger à tjue pakker

9) (om alder, av og til uten oversettelse på norsk) på

• they have a boy of ten

de har en gutt på ti år

• they married at fifty years of age

de giftet seg i femtiårsalderen

• he's fifty years of age

han er femti år gammel

10) ( om materiale som noe består av) av, i

• he's got a heart of stone

han har et hjerte av stein

• the bridge is built of steel

broen er bygd i stål

• she bought a table of oak

hun kjøpte et eikebord

• flour is made of wheat

mel er laget av hvete

11) (om dato, årstid, navn eller tittel, av og til uten oversettelse på norsk) på

• she arrived on the fifth of May

hun ankom femte mai

• I was born in the month of March

jeg ble født i mars måned

• the winter of 1998 was cold

vinteren 1998 var kald

• it's the best time of the year

det er den beste tiden på året

• I was introduced to a man by the name of Peter Silver

jeg ble presentert for en mann ved navn Peter Silver

• he has the title of a lord

han har tittelen lord

• she's the Rector of Burnside

hun er bestyreren på Burnside

• he's the governor of St. Helena

han er guvernøren på St. Helena

12) (om personlig egenskap, av og til uten oversettelse på norsk) på

• the girl is swift of foot

jenta er rask på foten

• he's dull of thought

han tenker langsomt

13) ( om sammenligning) til, av

• she's an angel of a woman

hun er en engel av en kvinne

• your husband is a giant of a fellow

mannen din er en kjempe av en mann

• this is a gem of a poem

dette er en poesiens perle

• they live in a palace of a house

de bor i et palassliknende hus

14) ( tilsvarer norsk infinitivsmerke) å

• I have the pleasure of sending you the goods

jeg har gleden av å sende deg varene

• he has one merit, that of being honest

han har ett fortrinn, nemlig det å være ærlig

• I would like to learn the art of painting

jeg vil gjerne lære kunsten å male

15) (i visse tidsuttrykk, litterært) på, om

• I sometimes see him of the evening

jeg ser ham av og til om kvelden

• I see her of mornings

jeg ser henne om morgenen

• what do you do of Sundays?

hva gjør du på søndagene?

16) (amer., om klokkeslett) på

• it's five minutes of twelve

klokken er fem på tolv

be of delta i, være med i, tilhøre

• be of a party

tilhøre et parti

of late i det siste

• of late years

i de siste årene\/i de senere år

of oneself av seg selv, frivillig

• the explosion couldn't have happened of itself

• he came of himself

han kom frivillig

English-Norwegian dictionary > of
15 be

'bi: ɡi:
( abbreviation) (Bachelor of Engineering; first degree in Engineering.) licenciatura en Ingeniería

be vb

1. ser

Michael is very tall Michael es muy alto

Lisbon is the capital of Portugal Lisboa es la capital de Portugal

sugar is sweet el azúcar es dulce

Napoleon was Corsican Napoleón era corso

my father is an architect mi padre es arquitecto

my mother is from Bristol mi madre es de Bristol

what time is it? It's 3 o'clock ¿qué hora es? Son las tres

June 17th is Elena's birthday el 17 de junio es el cumpleaños de Elena

who is it? It's me ¿quién es? Soy yo

this exercise is difficult este ejercicio es difícil

the house was built 50 years ago la casa fue construida hace 50 años

he was attacked by a dog le atacó un perro

2. estar

how are you? I'm fine ¿cómo estás? estoy bien

David is very happy David está muy contento

I'm tired estoy cansado

his wife's pregnant su mujer está embarazada

we were worried about you estábamos preocupados por ti

where is Pauline? ¿dónde está Pauline?

the milk is on the table la leche está en la mesa

how far is it? ¿a qué distancia está?

what day is it today? ¿qué día es hoy? / ¿a qué día estamos?

3. tener

how old are you? I'm 16 ¿cuántos años tienes? tengo 16 años

I'm cold tengo frío

she's hungry tiene hambre

you're right tienes razón

4. costar / valer / ser

how much is it? ¿cuánto cuesta? / ¿cuánto vale? / ¿cuánto es?

the tickets are £15 each las entradas valen 15 libras cada una

5. hacer

it's sunny hace sol

it's hot hace calor

it was cold hacía frío

6. haber

there are a lot of people hay mucha gente

how many children are there? ¿cuántos niños hay?

there was an explosion hubo una explosión

El pasado de be es was o were y el participio pasado es been; el gerundio se escribe being

Se usa también para construir el tiempo verbal llamado present continuous que indica una acción que está pasando en estos momentos

what are you doing? ¿qué estás haciendo? / ¿qué haces?

I'm reading a magazine estoy leyendo una revista

look, it's snowing mira, está nevando

be sustantivo femenino: name of the letter b, often called be largaor grande to distinguish it from v 'be' also found in these entries: Spanish: A - abasto - abate - abismo - abotargarse - abreviar - abrirse - absoluta - absoluto - abultar - abundar - aburrir - aburrirse - acabose - acariciar - acaso - acertar - achantarse - acometer - acostada - acostado - acostumbrar - acostumbrada - acostumbrado - acreditar - activa - activo - adelantar - adelantarse - adentro - adivinarse - admirarse - adolecer - aferrarse - afianzarse - aficionada - aficionado - afligirse - agonizar - agotarse - agradecer - agua - ahogarse - ahora - aire - ajo - ala - alarmarse - alcanzar - alegrarse English: aback - abate - about - absent - accordance - account for - accountable - accustom - acquaint - action - addicted - address - adequate - adjust - admit - affiliated - afford - afraid - agenda - agree - agreement - ahead - air - airsick - alert - alive - alone - along - aloof - alphabetically - always - am - ambition - amenable - amusing - anathema - annoyance - anomaly - anxious - apologetic - appal - appall - are - arm - around - arrears - as - ashamed - aspire - assert

be

tr[biː]

intransitive verb (pres 1ª pers am, 2ª pers sing y todas del pl are, 3ª pers sing is; pt 1ª y 3ª pers sing was, 2ª pers sing y todas del pl; pp been)

1 (permanent characteristic) ser

■ she's clever es inteligente

■ he's blind es ciego

■ I'm deaf soy sordo

2 (essential quality) ser

■ diamonds are hard los diamantes son duros

3 (nationality) ser

■ John's English John es inglés

■ they are Japanese son japoneses

4 (occupation) ser

■ he's an engineer es ingeniero

■ we are both teachers los dos somos profesores

5 (origin) ser

■ they are from York son de York

6 (ownership) ser

■ it's my pencil es mi lápiz

7 (authorship) ser

■ this painting is by Botero este cuadro es de Botero

8 (composition) ser

■ this cupboard is oak este armario es de roble

9 (use) ser

■ this product is for tiles este producto es para baldosas

10 (location) estar

■ Whitby is on the coast Whitby está en la costa

11 (temporary state) estar

■ your supper's cold tu cena está fría

■ how are you? ¿cómo estás?

■ you're a bit deaf today estás un poco sordo hoy

■ prawns are cheap today las gambas están bien de precio hoy

12 (age) tener

■ Philip is 22 Philip tiene 22 años

13 (price) costar, valer

■ a single ticket is £9.50 un billete de ida cuesta £9.50

14 tener

■ he's hot/cold tiene calor/frío

■ we're hungry/thirsty tenemos hambre/sed

■ she's in a hurry tiene prisa

■ he's right tiene razón

auxiliar be + pres part

1 (action in progress or near future) estar

■ it is raining está lloviendo

■ he's working está trabajando

■ the train is coming viene el tren

■ I am going on Thursday iré el jueves

■ she's meeting Mr Broddle tomorrow se reunirá con el señor Broddle mañana

auxiliar to be + past participle

1 (passive) ser

■ she was arrested at the border fue detenida en la frontera, la detuvieron en la frontera

■ he's hated by everybody es odiado por todos, todos lo odian

■ he was discharged fue dado de alta, lo dieron de alta

■ the house has been sold la casa ha sido vendida, la casa se ha vendido, han vendido la casa

■ he was given a clock le dieron un reloj

■ thirty children were injured treinta niños fueron heridos, treinta niños resultaron heridos

■ the two areas of the town are divided by a wall las dos zonas de la ciudad están divididas por un muro

auxiliar be + to + inf

1 (obligation) deber, tener que

■ you are not to come here again no debes volver aquí

■ you are to do as I say tienes que hacer lo que yo te diga

1 (future)

■ the King is to visit Egypt el Rey visitará Egipto

phrase there is / there are

1 hay

■ there's some wine in the bottle hay algo de vino en la botella

■ there are two policemen following us hay dos policías que nos siguen

■ is there much traffic ¿hay mucho tráfico?

1 había

■ there was no money no había dinero

■ there were twenty five candles on the cake había veinticinco velas en la tarta

■ were there many people? ¿había mucha gente?

phrase there will be

1 habrá

■ there will be snow in the mountains habrá nieve en las montañas

phrase there would be

1 habría

■ there would be time to see the castle habría tiempo para ver el castillo

■ if Mike came, there would be ten of us si viniera Mike, seríamos diez

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to be about to «+ inf» estar para + inf, estar a punto de + inf

■ the train is about to arrive el tren está a punto de llegar

to be or not to be ser o no ser

be ['bi:] v, was ['wəz, 'wɑz] ; were ['wər] ; been ['bɪn] ; being ; am ['æm] ; is ['ɪz] ; are ['ɑr] vi

1) (expressing equality) : ser

José is a doctor: José es doctor

I'm Ana's sister: soy la hermana de Ana

2) (expressing quality) : ser

the tree is tall: el árbol es alto

you're silly!: ¡eres tonto!

3) (expressing origin or possession) : ser

she's from Managua: es de Managua

it's mine: es mío

4) (expressing location) : estar

my mother is at home: mi madre está en casa

the cups are on the table: las tazas están en la mesa

5) (expressing existence) : ser, existir

to be or not to be: ser, o no ser

I think, therefore I am: pienso, luego existo

6) (expressing a state of being) : estar, tener

how are you?: ¿cómo estás?

I'm cold: tengo frío

she's 10 years old: tiene 10 años

they're both sick: están enfermos los dos

be v impers

1) (indicating time) : ser

it's eight o'clock: son las ocho

it's Friday: hoy es viernes

2) (indicating a condition) : hacer, estar

it's sunny: hace sol

it's very dark outside: está bien oscuro afuera

be v aux

1) (expressing progression) : estar

what are you doing? -I'm working: ¿qué haces? -estoy trabajando

2) (expressing occurrence) : ser

it was finished yesterday: fue acabado ayer, se acabó ayer

it was cooked in the oven: se cocinó en el horno

3) (expressing possibility) : poderse

can she be trusted?: ¿se puede confiar en ella?

4) (expressing obligation) : deber

you are to stay here: debes quedarte aquí

he was to come yesterday: se esperaba que viniese ayer

be

v.

(§ p.,p.p.: was, were, been) = estar v.

(§pres: estoy, estás...) pret: estuv-•)

• ser v.

(§pres: soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son) subj: se-

imp: er-

pret

fu-•)

biːˌ weak form bi
1.

1) (pres am, are, is; past was, were; past p been) intransitive verb [See notes at ser and estar]

Sense I

2)

a) (followed by an adjective)

she's French/intelligent — es francesa/inteligente

he's worried/furious — está preocupado/furioso

he's blind — es or (Esp tb) está ciego

he's short and fat — es bajo y gordo

he's so fat he can't get into his clothes any more — está tan gordo que ya no le cabe la ropa

these shoes are new — estos zapatos son nuevos

have you never had gazpacho? it's delicious! — ¿nunca has comido gazpacho? es delicioso!

the gazpacho is delicious, did you make it yourself? — el gazpacho está delicioso ¿lo hiciste tú?

she was very rude to me — estuvo or fue muy grosera conmigo

she's very rude — es muy grosera

be good — sé bueno

don't be silly! — no seas tonto!

b) ( talking about marital status)

Tony is married/divorced/single — Tony está or (esp AmL) es casado/divorciado/soltero

to be married to somebody — estar* casado con alguien

we've been married for eight years — llevamos ocho años casados

3)

a) (followed by a noun) ser*

she's a lawyer — es abogada

he's a Catholic — es católico

she was Prime Minister for 11 years — fue Primera Ministra durante 11 años

who was Prime Minister at the time? — ¿quién era Primer Ministro en ese momento?

it's me/Daniel — soy yo/es Daniel

if I were you, I'd stay — yo que tú or yo en tu lugar me quedaría

b) ( play the role of) hacer* de

I was Juliet in the school play — hice de Julieta en la obra del colegio

4)

a) ( talking about mental and physical states)

how are you? — ¿cómo estás?

I'm much better — estoy or me encuentro mucho mejor

she's pregnant/tired — está embarazada/cansada

I'm cold/hot/hungry/thirsty/sleepy — tengo frío/calor/hambre/sed/sueño

she has been ill — ha estado enferma

he's dead — está muerto

b) ( talking about age) tener*

how old are you? — ¿cuántos años tienes?

I'm 31 — tengo 31 años

Paul was four last Monday — Paul cumplió cuatro años el lunes pasado

he's a lot older/younger — es mucho mayor/menor

our house is over 100 years old — nuestra casa tiene más de 100 años

c) (giving cost, measurement, weight)

how much is that? - that'll be $15, please — ¿cuánto es? - (son) 15 dólares, por favor

they are $15 each — cuestan or valen 15 dólares cada una

two plus two is four — dos más dos son cuatro

how tall/heavy is he? — ¿cuánto mide/pesa?

Jim's over six feet (tall) — Jim mide más de seis pies

Sense II

5)

a) (exist, live)

I think, therefore I am — pienso, luego existo

to be or not to be — ser o no ser

to let something/somebody be — dejar tranquilo or en paz algo/a alguien

her husband-to-be — su futuro marido

b) ( in expressions of time)

don't be too long — no tardes mucho, no (te) demores mucho (esp AmL)

I'm drying my hair, I won't be long — me estoy secando el pelo, enseguida estoy

how long will dinner be? — ¿cuánto falta para la cena?

c) ( take place) ser*

the party is tomorrow — la fiesta es mañana

6) (be situated, present) estar*

where is the library? — ¿dónde está or queda la biblioteca?

where are you? — ¿dónde estás?

what's in that box? — ¿qué hay en esa caja?

who's in the movie? — ¿quién actúa or trabaja en la película?

he's here for two weeks — va a estar aquí dos semanas

how long are you in Chicago (for)? — (colloq) ¿cuánto (tiempo) te vas a quedar en Chicago ?

7) (only in perfect tenses) ( visit) estar*

I've never been to India — nunca he estado en la India

have you been to the exhibition yet? — ¿ya has estado en or has ido a la exposición?

2.

v impers

1)

a) (talking about physical conditions, circumstances)

it's sunny/cold/hot — hace sol/frío/calor

it's cloudy — está nublado

it was three degrees below zero — hacía tres grados bajo cero

it's so noisy/quiet in here! — qué ruido/silencio hay aquí!

I have enough problems as it is, without you... — yo ya tengo suficientes problemas sin que tú encima...

b) ( in expressions of time) ser*

it's three o'clock — son las tres

it's one o'clock — es la una

it was still very early — todavía era muy temprano

it's Wednesday today — hoy es miércoles

hi, Joe, it's been a long time — qué tal, Joe, tanto tiempo (sin verte)

c) ( talking about distance) estar*

it's 500 miles from here to Detroit — Detroit queda or está a 500 millas de aquí

2)

a) (introducing person, object) ser*

it was me who told them — fui yo quien se lo dije or dijo, fui yo el que se lo dije or dijo

b) (in conditional use) ser*

if it hadn't been o had it not been for Juan, we would have been killed — si no hubiera sido por Juan or de no ser por Juan, nos habríamos matado

3.

v aux

1) to be -ing

a) ( used to describe action in progress) estar* + ger

what was I saying? — ¿qué estaba diciendo?

she was leaving when... — se iba cuando...

how long have you been waiting? — ¿cuánto (tiempo) hace que esperas?, ¿cuánto (tiempo) llevas esperando?

b) ( with future reference)

he is o will be arriving tomorrow — llega mañana

when are you seeing her? — ¿cuándo la vas a ver or la verás?

she'll be staying at the Plaza — se va a alojar en el Plaza

2) (in the passive voice) ser* [The passive voice, however, is less common in Spanish than it is in English]

it was built in 1903 — fue construido en 1903, se construyó en 1903, lo construyeron en 1903

she was told that... — le dijeron or se le dijo que...

it is known that... — se sabe que...

3) to be to + inf

a) ( with future reference)

I'm to be met at the airport by Joe — Joe me irá a buscar al aeropuerto

the dessert is (still) to come — todavía falta el postre

if a solution is to be found... — si se quiere encontrar or si se ha de encontrar una solución...

b) ( expressing possibility)

what are we to do? — ¿qué podemos hacer?

he wasn't to know — no tenía cómo saberlo

it was nowhere to be found — no se lo pudo encontrar por ninguna parte

c) ( expressing obligation) deber* + inf, tener* que + inf, haber* de + inf

tell her she's to stay here — dile que debe quedarse or tiene que quedarse aquí, dile que se quede aquí

you are not to tell Carol! — no debes decírselo a Carol!

am I to understand that... ? — ¿debo entender que... ?

I'm not to be disturbed! — que nadie me moleste!

4) ( in hypotheses)

what would happen if she were o was to die? — ¿qué pasaría si ella muriera?

5)

a) (in tag questions)

she's right, isn't she? — tiene razón, ¿no? or ¿verdad? or ¿no es cierto?

so that's what you think, is it? — de manera que eso es lo que piensas

b) (in elliptical uses)

are you disappointed? - yes, I am/no, I'm not — ¿estás desilusionado? - sí (, lo estoy)/no (, no lo estoy)

she was told the news, and so was he/but I wasn't — a ella le dieron la noticia, y también a él/pero a mí no

I'm surprised, are/aren't you? — estoy sorprendido, ¿y tú?/¿tú no?

[biː] (present am, is or are pt was or were pp been)
1. INTRANSITIVE VERB

1) (linking nouns, noun phrases, pronouns) ser

he's a pianist — es pianista

he wants to be a doctor — quiere ser médico

Monday's a holiday — el lunes es fiesta

two and two are four — dos y dos son cuatro

it's me! — ¡soy yo!

it was me — fui yo

who wants to be Hamlet? — ¿quién quiere hacer de or ser Hamlet?

you be the patient and I'll be the doctor — tú eres el enfermo y yo seré el médico

if I were you... — yo en tu lugar..., yo que tú... *

2) (possession) ser

she's his sister — es su hermana

it's mine — es mío

3) (characteristics seen as inherent) ser

the sky is blue — el cielo es azul

it's (made of) plastic — es de plástico

they're English — son ingleses

he's tall — es alto

it's round/enormous — es redondo/enorme

she is boring — es aburrida

I used to be poor but now I'm rich — antes era pobre pero ahora soy rico

if I were rich — si fuera rico

I'm from the south — soy del sur

the book is in French — el libro es en francés
Use [estar] with past participles used as adjectives describing the results of an action or process:
it's broken — está roto

he's dead — está muerto

4) (changeable or temporary state) estar

it's dirty — está sucio

she's bored/ill — está aburrida/enferma

how are you? — ¿cómo estás?, ¿qué tal estás?

how are you now? — ¿qué tal te encuentras ahora?

I'm very well, thanks — estoy muy bien, gracias
In certain expressions where English uses [be] + adjective to describe feelings ([be cold]/[hot]/[hungry]/[thirsty]), Spanish uses [tener] with a noun:
I'm cold/hot — tengo frío/calor

my feet are cold — tengo los pies fríos

I'm hungry/thirsty — tengo hambre/sed

be good! — ¡pórtate bien!

you're late — llegas tarde
afraid, sleepy, right
5) (age)

"how old is she?" - "she's nine" — -¿cuántos años tiene? -tiene nueve años

she will be two tomorrow — mañana cumple dos años

when I'm old — cuando sea viejo

when I was young — cuando era joven

6) (=take place) ser

the meeting's today — la reunión es hoy

the service will be at St Ninian's Church — el oficio será en la iglesia de San Ninian

7) (=be situated) estar

Edinburgh is in Scotland — Edimburgo está en Escocia

it's on the table — está sobre or en la mesa

where is the Town Hall? — ¿dónde está or queda el ayuntamiento?

it's 5 km to the village — el pueblo está or queda a 5 kilómetros

he won't be here tomorrow — mañana no estará aquí

we've been here for ages — hace mucho tiempo que estamos aquí, llevamos aquí mucho tiempo, estamos aquí desde hace mucho tiempo

• here you are(, take it) — aquí tienes(, tómalo)

• there's the church — ahí está la iglesia

8) (impersonal use)

a) (referring to weather) hacer

it's hot/cold — hace calor/frío

it's too hot — hace demasiado calor

it's fine — hace buen tiempo

b) (referring to time, date etc) ser

it's eight o'clock — son las ocho

it's morning in New York now — en Nueva York ahora es por la mañana

wake up, it's morning — despierta, es de día

what's the date (today)? — ¿qué fecha es hoy?

it's 3 May or the 3rd of May — es 3 de mayo

it's Thursday today — hoy es jueves
But note the following alternatives with [estar]:
it's 3 May or the 3rd of May — estamos a 3 de mayo

it's Thursday today — hoy estamos a jueves

c) (asking and giving opinion) ser

is it certain that...? — ¿es verdad or cierto que...?

it is easy to make a mistake — es fácil cometer un fallo

is it fair that she should be punished while...? — ¿es justo que se la castigue mientras que...?

it is possible that he'll come — es posible que venga, puede (ser) que venga

it is impossible to study all the time — es imposible estar siempre estudiando

it is unbelievable that... — es increíble que...

it's not clear whether... — no está claro si...

it would be wrong for us to do that — no estaría bien que nosotros hiciésemos eso

d) (emphatic) ser

it's me who does all the work — soy yo quien hace todo el trabajo

it was Peter who phoned — fue Peter quien llamó

why is it that she's so successful? — ¿cómo es que tiene tanto éxito?, ¿por qué tiene tanto éxito?

it was then that... — fue entonces cuando...

9) (=exist) haber

there is/are — hay

what is (there) in that room? — ¿qué hay en esa habitación?

there is nothing more beautiful — no hay nada más bello

is there anyone at home? — ¿hay alguien en casa?

there were six road accidents here last year — el año pasado hubo seis accidentes de tráfico aquí

there must be an explanation — debe de haber una explicación

there being no alternative solution... — al no haber or no habiendo otra solución...

let there be light! — ¡hágase la luz!

there are three of us — somos tres

there were three of them — eran tres

after the shop there's the bus station — después de la tienda está la estación de autobuses

See:

THERE IS, THERE ARE in there

10) (=cost)

how much was it? — ¿cuánto costó?

the book is £20 — el libro vale or cuesta 20 libras

how much is it? — ¿cuánto es?; (when paying) ¿qué le debo? frm

11) (=visit)

has the postman been? — ¿ha venido el cartero?

he has been and gone — vino y se fue

I have been to see my aunt — he ido a ver a mi tía

have you ever been to Glasgow? — ¿has estado en Glasgow alguna vez?

I've been to China — he estado en China

12) (in noun compounds) futuro

• mother to be — futura madre or mamá f

• my wife to be — mi futura esposa

13) (in set expressions)

to be or not to be — ser o no ser

• been and * —

you've been and done it now! — ¡buena la has hecho! *

that dog of yours has been and dug up my flowers! — ¡tu perro ha ido y me ha destrozado las flores!

• you're busy enough as it is — estás bastante ocupado ya con lo que tienes, ya tienes suficiente trabajo

as things are — tal como están las cosas

be that as it may — sea como fuere

• if it hadn't been for..., if it hadn't been for you or frm had it not been for you, we would have lost — si no hubiera sido por ti or de no haber sido por ti, habríamos perdido

• let me be! — ¡déjame en paz!

• if that's what you want to do, then so be it — si eso es lo que quieres hacer, adelante

• what is it to you? * — ¿a ti qué te importa?

• what's it to be? — (in bar etc) ¿qué va a ser?, ¿qué vas a tomar?

2. AUXILIARY VERB

1) (forming passive) ser

the house was destroyed by an earthquake — la casa fue destruida por un terremoto
The passive is not used as often in Spanish as in English, active and reflexive constructions often being preferred:
the box had been opened — habían abierto la caja

these cars are produced in Spain — estos coches se fabrican en España

it is said that... — dicen que..., se dice que...

he was killed by a terrorist — lo mató un terrorista

she was killed in a car crash — murió en un accidente de coche, resultó muerta en un accidente de coche frm

what's to be done? — ¿qué hay que hacer?

• it's a film not to be missed — es una película que no hay que perderse

• we searched everywhere for him, but he was nowhere to be seen — lo buscamos por todas partes pero no lo encontramos en ningún sitio

2) (forming continuous) estar

it's raining — está lloviendo

what are you doing? — ¿qué estás haciendo?, ¿qué haces?

don't distract me when I'm driving — no me distraigas cuando estoy conduciendo

he's always grumbling — siempre está quejándose

he was studying until the early hours — estuvo estudiando hasta la madrugada
Use the present simple to talk about planned future events and the construction to talk about intention:
they're coming tomorrow — vienen mañana

"it's a pity you aren't coming with us" - "but I am coming!" — -¡qué pena que no vengas con nosotros! -¡sí que voy!

will you be seeing her tomorrow? — ¿la verás or la vas a ver mañana?

will you be needing more? — ¿vas a necesitar más?

I shall be seeing him — voy a verlo

I'll be seeing you — hasta luego, nos vemos (esp LAm)
The imperfect tense can be used for continuous action in the past:
he was driving too fast — conducía demasiado rápido
for, since
3) (verb substitute)

a)

he's older than you are — es mayor que tú

he isn't as happy as he was — no está tan contento como antes

"he's going to complain about you" - "oh, is he?" — -va a quejarse de ti -¿ah, sí?

"I'm worried" - "so am I" — -estoy preocupado -yo también

"I'm not ready" - "neither am I" — -no estoy listo -yo tampoco

"you're tired" - "no, I'm not" — -estás cansado -no, ¡qué va!

"you're not eating enough" - "yes I am" — -no comes lo suficiente -que sí

"they're getting married" - "oh, are they?" — (showing surprise) -se casan -¿ah, sí? or -¡no me digas!

"he isn't very happy" - "oh, isn't he?" — -no está muy contento -¿ah, no?

"he's always late, isn't he?" - "yes, he is" — -siempre llega tarde, ¿verdad? -(pues) sí

"is it what you expected?" - "no, it isn't" — -¿es esto lo que esperabas? -(pues) no

"she's pretty" - "no, she isn't" — -es guapa -¡qué va!

b) (in question tags)

he's handsome, isn't he? — es guapo, ¿verdad?, es guapo, ¿no?, es guapo, ¿no es cierto?

it was fun, wasn't it? — fue divertido, ¿verdad?, fue divertido, ¿no?

she wasn't happy, was she? — no era feliz, ¿verdad?

so he's back again, is he? — así que ha vuelto, ¿eh?

you're not ill, are you? — ¿no estarás enfermo?

3. MODAL VERB
(with infinitive construction)
1) (=must, have to)

you're to put on your shoes — tienes que ponerte los zapatos

he's not to open it — no debe abrirlo, que no lo abra

I am to do it — he de hacerlo yo, soy yo el que debe hacerlo

I am not to speak to him — no tengo permiso para hablar con él

I wasn't to tell you his name — no podía or debía decirte su nombre

2) (=should) deber

he is to be congratulated on his work — debemos felicitarlo por su trabajo

am I to understand that...? — ¿debo entender que...?

she wrote "My Life", not to be confused with Bernstein's book of the same name — escribió "Mi Vida", que no debe confundirse con la obra de Bernstein que lleva el mismo título

he was to have come yesterday — tenía que or debía haber venido ayer

he is to be pitied — es digno de lástima

3) (=will)

the talks are to start tomorrow — las conversaciones darán comienzo mañana

her house is to be sold — su casa se pondrá a la venta

they are to be married in the summer — se casarán en el verano

4) (=can)

these birds are to be found all over the world — estos pájaros se encuentran por todo el mundo

little traffic was to be seen — había poco tráfico

you weren't to know — no tenías por qué saberlo

5) (expressing destiny)

this was to have serious repercussions — esto iba a tener serias repercusiones

they were never to return — jamás regresaron

it was not to be — no quiso el destino que así fuera

6) (in conditional sentences)

you must work harder if you are to succeed — debes esforzarte más si quieres triunfar

if it was or were to snow... — si nevase or nevara...

if I were to leave the job, would you replace me? — si yo dejara el puesto, ¿me sustituirías?
BE
"Ser" or "estar"?
You can use "ser": ► when defining or identifying by linking two nouns or noun phrases:
Paris is the capital of France París es la capital de Francia
He was the most hated man in the village Era el hombre más odiado del pueblo ► to describe essential or inherent characteristics (e.g. colour, material, nationality, race, shape, size {etc}):
His mother is German Su madre es alemana
She was blonde Era rubia ► with most impersonal expressions not involving past participles:
It is important to be on time Es importante llegar a tiempo
Está claro que is an exception:
It is obvious you don't understand Está claro que no lo entiendes ► when telling the time or talking about time or age:
It is ten o'clock Son las diez
It's very late. Let's go home Es muy tarde. Vamos a casa
He lived in the country when he was young Vivió en el campo cuando era joven ► to indicate possession or duty:
It's mine Es mío
This is your responsibility Este asunto es responsabilidad tuya ► with events in the sense of "take place":
The 1992 Olympic Games were in Barcelona Los Juegos Olímpicos de 1992 fueron en Barcelona
"Where is the exam?" - "It's in Room 1" "¿Dónde es el examen?" - "Es en el Aula Número 1" NOTE: Compare this usage with that of estar (see below) to talk about location of places, objects and people.
You can use "estar": ► to talk about location of places, objects and people:
"Where is Zaragoza?" - "It's in Spain" "¿Dónde está Zaragoza?" - "Está en España"
Your glasses are on the bedside table Tus gafas están en la mesilla de noche NOTE: But use ser with events in the sense of "take place" (see above)}. ► to talk about changeable state, condition or mood:
The teacher is ill La profesora está enferma
The coffee's cold El café está frío
How happy I am! ¡Qué contento estoy! NOTE: Feliz, however, which is seen as more permanent than contento, is used mainly with ser. ► to form progressive tenses:
We're having lunch. Is it ok if I call you later? Estamos comiendo. Te llamaré luego, ¿vale?
Both "ser" and "estar" can be used with past participles ► Use ser in {passive} constructions:
This play was written by Lorca Esta obra fue escrita por Lorca
He was shot dead (by a terrorist group) Fue asesinado a tiros (por un grupo terrorista) NOTE: The passive is not used as often in Spanish as it is in English. ► Use estar with past participles to describe the {results} of a previous action or event:
We threw them away because they were broken Los tiramos a la basura porque estaban rotos
He's dead Está muerto ► Compare the use of ser + ((past participle)) which describes {action} and estar + ((past participle)) which describes {result} in the following:
The window was broken by the firemen La ventana fue rota por los bomberos
The window was broken La ventana estaba rota
It was painted around 1925 Fue pintado hacia 1925
The floor is painted a dark colour El suelo está pintado de color oscuro ► Ser and estar are both used in impersonal expressions with past participles. As above, the use of ser implies {action} while the use of estar implies {result}:
It is understood that the work was never finished Es sabido que el trabajo nunca se llegó a terminar
It is a proven fact that vaccinations save many lives Está demostrado que las vacunas salvan muchas vidas
"Ser" and "estar" with adjectives ► Some adjectives can be used with both ser and estar but the meaning changes completely depending on the verb:
He's clever Es listo
Are you ready? ¿Estás listo?
Chemistry is boring La química es aburrida
I'm bored Estoy aburrido ► Other adjectives can also be used with both verbs but the use of ser describes a {characteristic} while the use of estar implies a {change}:
He's very handsome Es muy guapo
You look great in that dress! Estás muy guapa con ese vestido
He's slim Es delgado
You're (looking) very slim ¡Estás muy delgada! For further uses and examples, see main entry
* * *
[biːˌ] weak form [bi]
1.

1) (pres am, are, is; past was, were; past p been) intransitive verb [See notes at ser and estar]

Sense I

2)

a) (followed by an adjective)

she's French/intelligent — es francesa/inteligente

he's worried/furious — está preocupado/furioso

he's blind — es or (Esp tb) está ciego

he's short and fat — es bajo y gordo

he's so fat he can't get into his clothes any more — está tan gordo que ya no le cabe la ropa

these shoes are new — estos zapatos son nuevos

have you never had gazpacho? it's delicious! — ¿nunca has comido gazpacho? es delicioso!

the gazpacho is delicious, did you make it yourself? — el gazpacho está delicioso ¿lo hiciste tú?

she was very rude to me — estuvo or fue muy grosera conmigo

she's very rude — es muy grosera

be good — sé bueno

don't be silly! — no seas tonto!

b) ( talking about marital status)

Tony is married/divorced/single — Tony está or (esp AmL) es casado/divorciado/soltero

to be married to somebody — estar* casado con alguien

we've been married for eight years — llevamos ocho años casados

3)

a) (followed by a noun) ser*

she's a lawyer — es abogada

he's a Catholic — es católico

she was Prime Minister for 11 years — fue Primera Ministra durante 11 años

who was Prime Minister at the time? — ¿quién era Primer Ministro en ese momento?

it's me/Daniel — soy yo/es Daniel

if I were you, I'd stay — yo que tú or yo en tu lugar me quedaría

b) ( play the role of) hacer* de

I was Juliet in the school play — hice de Julieta en la obra del colegio

4)

a) ( talking about mental and physical states)

how are you? — ¿cómo estás?

I'm much better — estoy or me encuentro mucho mejor

she's pregnant/tired — está embarazada/cansada

I'm cold/hot/hungry/thirsty/sleepy — tengo frío/calor/hambre/sed/sueño

she has been ill — ha estado enferma

he's dead — está muerto

b) ( talking about age) tener*

how old are you? — ¿cuántos años tienes?

I'm 31 — tengo 31 años

Paul was four last Monday — Paul cumplió cuatro años el lunes pasado

he's a lot older/younger — es mucho mayor/menor

our house is over 100 years old — nuestra casa tiene más de 100 años

c) (giving cost, measurement, weight)

how much is that? - that'll be $15, please — ¿cuánto es? - (son) 15 dólares, por favor

they are $15 each — cuestan or valen 15 dólares cada una

two plus two is four — dos más dos son cuatro

how tall/heavy is he? — ¿cuánto mide/pesa?

Jim's over six feet (tall) — Jim mide más de seis pies

Sense II

5)

a) (exist, live)

I think, therefore I am — pienso, luego existo

to be or not to be — ser o no ser

to let something/somebody be — dejar tranquilo or en paz algo/a alguien

her husband-to-be — su futuro marido

b) ( in expressions of time)

don't be too long — no tardes mucho, no (te) demores mucho (esp AmL)

I'm drying my hair, I won't be long — me estoy secando el pelo, enseguida estoy

how long will dinner be? — ¿cuánto falta para la cena?

c) ( take place) ser*

the party is tomorrow — la fiesta es mañana

6) (be situated, present) estar*

where is the library? — ¿dónde está or queda la biblioteca?

where are you? — ¿dónde estás?

what's in that box? — ¿qué hay en esa caja?

who's in the movie? — ¿quién actúa or trabaja en la película?

he's here for two weeks — va a estar aquí dos semanas

how long are you in Chicago (for)? — (colloq) ¿cuánto (tiempo) te vas a quedar en Chicago ?

7) (only in perfect tenses) ( visit) estar*

I've never been to India — nunca he estado en la India

have you been to the exhibition yet? — ¿ya has estado en or has ido a la exposición?

2.

v impers

1)

a) (talking about physical conditions, circumstances)

it's sunny/cold/hot — hace sol/frío/calor

it's cloudy — está nublado

it was three degrees below zero — hacía tres grados bajo cero

it's so noisy/quiet in here! — qué ruido/silencio hay aquí!

I have enough problems as it is, without you... — yo ya tengo suficientes problemas sin que tú encima...

b) ( in expressions of time) ser*

it's three o'clock — son las tres

it's one o'clock — es la una

it was still very early — todavía era muy temprano

it's Wednesday today — hoy es miércoles

hi, Joe, it's been a long time — qué tal, Joe, tanto tiempo (sin verte)

c) ( talking about distance) estar*

it's 500 miles from here to Detroit — Detroit queda or está a 500 millas de aquí

2)

a) (introducing person, object) ser*

it was me who told them — fui yo quien se lo dije or dijo, fui yo el que se lo dije or dijo

b) (in conditional use) ser*

if it hadn't been o had it not been for Juan, we would have been killed — si no hubiera sido por Juan or de no ser por Juan, nos habríamos matado

3.

v aux

1) to be -ing

a) ( used to describe action in progress) estar* + ger

what was I saying? — ¿qué estaba diciendo?

she was leaving when... — se iba cuando...

how long have you been waiting? — ¿cuánto (tiempo) hace que esperas?, ¿cuánto (tiempo) llevas esperando?

b) ( with future reference)

he is o will be arriving tomorrow — llega mañana

when are you seeing her? — ¿cuándo la vas a ver or la verás?

she'll be staying at the Plaza — se va a alojar en el Plaza

2) (in the passive voice) ser* [The passive voice, however, is less common in Spanish than it is in English]

it was built in 1903 — fue construido en 1903, se construyó en 1903, lo construyeron en 1903

she was told that... — le dijeron or se le dijo que...

it is known that... — se sabe que...

3) to be to + inf

a) ( with future reference)

I'm to be met at the airport by Joe — Joe me irá a buscar al aeropuerto

the dessert is (still) to come — todavía falta el postre

if a solution is to be found... — si se quiere encontrar or si se ha de encontrar una solución...

b) ( expressing possibility)

what are we to do? — ¿qué podemos hacer?

he wasn't to know — no tenía cómo saberlo

it was nowhere to be found — no se lo pudo encontrar por ninguna parte

c) ( expressing obligation) deber* + inf, tener* que + inf, haber* de + inf

tell her she's to stay here — dile que debe quedarse or tiene que quedarse aquí, dile que se quede aquí

you are not to tell Carol! — no debes decírselo a Carol!

am I to understand that... ? — ¿debo entender que... ?

I'm not to be disturbed! — que nadie me moleste!

4) ( in hypotheses)

what would happen if she were o was to die? — ¿qué pasaría si ella muriera?

5)

a) (in tag questions)

she's right, isn't she? — tiene razón, ¿no? or ¿verdad? or ¿no es cierto?

so that's what you think, is it? — de manera que eso es lo que piensas

b) (in elliptical uses)

are you disappointed? - yes, I am/no, I'm not — ¿estás desilusionado? - sí (, lo estoy)/no (, no lo estoy)

she was told the news, and so was he/but I wasn't — a ella le dieron la noticia, y también a él/pero a mí no

I'm surprised, are/aren't you? — estoy sorprendido, ¿y tú?/¿tú no?

English-spanish dictionary > be
16 BE

'bi: ɡi:
( abbreviation) (Bachelor of Engineering; first degree in Engineering.) licenciatura en Ingeniería

be vb

1. ser

Michael is very tall Michael es muy alto

Lisbon is the capital of Portugal Lisboa es la capital de Portugal

sugar is sweet el azúcar es dulce

Napoleon was Corsican Napoleón era corso

my father is an architect mi padre es arquitecto

my mother is from Bristol mi madre es de Bristol

what time is it? It's 3 o'clock ¿qué hora es? Son las tres

June 17th is Elena's birthday el 17 de junio es el cumpleaños de Elena

who is it? It's me ¿quién es? Soy yo

this exercise is difficult este ejercicio es difícil

the house was built 50 years ago la casa fue construida hace 50 años

he was attacked by a dog le atacó un perro

2. estar

how are you? I'm fine ¿cómo estás? estoy bien

David is very happy David está muy contento

I'm tired estoy cansado

his wife's pregnant su mujer está embarazada

we were worried about you estábamos preocupados por ti

where is Pauline? ¿dónde está Pauline?

the milk is on the table la leche está en la mesa

how far is it? ¿a qué distancia está?

what day is it today? ¿qué día es hoy? / ¿a qué día estamos?

3. tener

how old are you? I'm 16 ¿cuántos años tienes? tengo 16 años

I'm cold tengo frío

she's hungry tiene hambre

you're right tienes razón

4. costar / valer / ser

how much is it? ¿cuánto cuesta? / ¿cuánto vale? / ¿cuánto es?

the tickets are £15 each las entradas valen 15 libras cada una

5. hacer

it's sunny hace sol

it's hot hace calor

it was cold hacía frío

6. haber

there are a lot of people hay mucha gente

how many children are there? ¿cuántos niños hay?

there was an explosion hubo una explosión

El pasado de be es was o were y el participio pasado es been; el gerundio se escribe being

Se usa también para construir el tiempo verbal llamado present continuous que indica una acción que está pasando en estos momentos

what are you doing? ¿qué estás haciendo? / ¿qué haces?

I'm reading a magazine estoy leyendo una revista

look, it's snowing mira, está nevando

be sustantivo femenino: name of the letter b, often called be largaor grande to distinguish it from v 'be' also found in these entries: Spanish: A - abasto - abate - abismo - abotargarse - abreviar - abrirse - absoluta - absoluto - abultar - abundar - aburrir - aburrirse - acabose - acariciar - acaso - acertar - achantarse - acometer - acostada - acostado - acostumbrar - acostumbrada - acostumbrado - acreditar - activa - activo - adelantar - adelantarse - adentro - adivinarse - admirarse - adolecer - aferrarse - afianzarse - aficionada - aficionado - afligirse - agonizar - agotarse - agradecer - agua - ahogarse - ahora - aire - ajo - ala - alarmarse - alcanzar - alegrarse English: aback - abate - about - absent - accordance - account for - accountable - accustom - acquaint - action - addicted - address - adequate - adjust - admit - affiliated - afford - afraid - agenda - agree - agreement - ahead - air - airsick - alert - alive - alone - along - aloof - alphabetically - always - am - ambition - amenable - amusing - anathema - annoyance - anomaly - anxious - apologetic - appal - appall - are - arm - around - arrears - as - ashamed - aspire - assert

be

tr[biː]

intransitive verb (pres 1ª pers am, 2ª pers sing y todas del pl are, 3ª pers sing is; pt 1ª y 3ª pers sing was, 2ª pers sing y todas del pl; pp been)

1 (permanent characteristic) ser

■ she's clever es inteligente

■ he's blind es ciego

■ I'm deaf soy sordo

2 (essential quality) ser

■ diamonds are hard los diamantes son duros

3 (nationality) ser

■ John's English John es inglés

■ they are Japanese son japoneses

4 (occupation) ser

■ he's an engineer es ingeniero

■ we are both teachers los dos somos profesores

5 (origin) ser

■ they are from York son de York

6 (ownership) ser

■ it's my pencil es mi lápiz

7 (authorship) ser

■ this painting is by Botero este cuadro es de Botero

8 (composition) ser

■ this cupboard is oak este armario es de roble

9 (use) ser

■ this product is for tiles este producto es para baldosas

10 (location) estar

■ Whitby is on the coast Whitby está en la costa

11 (temporary state) estar

■ your supper's cold tu cena está fría

■ how are you? ¿cómo estás?

■ you're a bit deaf today estás un poco sordo hoy

■ prawns are cheap today las gambas están bien de precio hoy

12 (age) tener

■ Philip is 22 Philip tiene 22 años

13 (price) costar, valer

■ a single ticket is £9.50 un billete de ida cuesta £9.50

14 tener

■ he's hot/cold tiene calor/frío

■ we're hungry/thirsty tenemos hambre/sed

■ she's in a hurry tiene prisa

■ he's right tiene razón

auxiliar be + pres part

1 (action in progress or near future) estar

■ it is raining está lloviendo

■ he's working está trabajando

■ the train is coming viene el tren

■ I am going on Thursday iré el jueves

■ she's meeting Mr Broddle tomorrow se reunirá con el señor Broddle mañana

auxiliar to be + past participle

1 (passive) ser

■ she was arrested at the border fue detenida en la frontera, la detuvieron en la frontera

■ he's hated by everybody es odiado por todos, todos lo odian

■ he was discharged fue dado de alta, lo dieron de alta

■ the house has been sold la casa ha sido vendida, la casa se ha vendido, han vendido la casa

■ he was given a clock le dieron un reloj

■ thirty children were injured treinta niños fueron heridos, treinta niños resultaron heridos

■ the two areas of the town are divided by a wall las dos zonas de la ciudad están divididas por un muro

auxiliar be + to + inf

1 (obligation) deber, tener que

■ you are not to come here again no debes volver aquí

■ you are to do as I say tienes que hacer lo que yo te diga

1 (future)

■ the King is to visit Egypt el Rey visitará Egipto

phrase there is / there are

1 hay

■ there's some wine in the bottle hay algo de vino en la botella

■ there are two policemen following us hay dos policías que nos siguen

■ is there much traffic ¿hay mucho tráfico?

1 había

■ there was no money no había dinero

■ there were twenty five candles on the cake había veinticinco velas en la tarta

■ were there many people? ¿había mucha gente?

phrase there will be

1 habrá

■ there will be snow in the mountains habrá nieve en las montañas

phrase there would be

1 habría

■ there would be time to see the castle habría tiempo para ver el castillo

■ if Mike came, there would be ten of us si viniera Mike, seríamos diez

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to be about to «+ inf» estar para + inf, estar a punto de + inf

■ the train is about to arrive el tren está a punto de llegar

to be or not to be ser o no ser

be ['bi:] v, was ['wəz, 'wɑz] ; were ['wər] ; been ['bɪn] ; being ; am ['æm] ; is ['ɪz] ; are ['ɑr] vi

1) (expressing equality) : ser

José is a doctor: José es doctor

I'm Ana's sister: soy la hermana de Ana

2) (expressing quality) : ser

the tree is tall: el árbol es alto

you're silly!: ¡eres tonto!

3) (expressing origin or possession) : ser

she's from Managua: es de Managua

it's mine: es mío

4) (expressing location) : estar

my mother is at home: mi madre está en casa

the cups are on the table: las tazas están en la mesa

5) (expressing existence) : ser, existir

to be or not to be: ser, o no ser

I think, therefore I am: pienso, luego existo

6) (expressing a state of being) : estar, tener

how are you?: ¿cómo estás?

I'm cold: tengo frío

she's 10 years old: tiene 10 años

they're both sick: están enfermos los dos

be v impers

1) (indicating time) : ser

it's eight o'clock: son las ocho

it's Friday: hoy es viernes

2) (indicating a condition) : hacer, estar

it's sunny: hace sol

it's very dark outside: está bien oscuro afuera

be v aux

1) (expressing progression) : estar

what are you doing? -I'm working: ¿qué haces? -estoy trabajando

2) (expressing occurrence) : ser

it was finished yesterday: fue acabado ayer, se acabó ayer

it was cooked in the oven: se cocinó en el horno

3) (expressing possibility) : poderse

can she be trusted?: ¿se puede confiar en ella?

4) (expressing obligation) : deber

you are to stay here: debes quedarte aquí

he was to come yesterday: se esperaba que viniese ayer

be

v.

(§ p.,p.p.: was, were, been) = estar v.

(§pres: estoy, estás...) pret: estuv-•)

• ser v.

(§pres: soy, eres, es, somos, sois, son) subj: se-

imp: er-

pret

fu-•)

biːˌ weak form bi
1.

1) (pres am, are, is; past was, were; past p been) intransitive verb [See notes at ser and estar]

Sense I

2)

a) (followed by an adjective)

she's French/intelligent — es francesa/inteligente

he's worried/furious — está preocupado/furioso

he's blind — es or (Esp tb) está ciego

he's short and fat — es bajo y gordo

he's so fat he can't get into his clothes any more — está tan gordo que ya no le cabe la ropa

these shoes are new — estos zapatos son nuevos

have you never had gazpacho? it's delicious! — ¿nunca has comido gazpacho? es delicioso!

the gazpacho is delicious, did you make it yourself? — el gazpacho está delicioso ¿lo hiciste tú?

she was very rude to me — estuvo or fue muy grosera conmigo

she's very rude — es muy grosera

be good — sé bueno

don't be silly! — no seas tonto!

b) ( talking about marital status)

Tony is married/divorced/single — Tony está or (esp AmL) es casado/divorciado/soltero

to be married to somebody — estar* casado con alguien

we've been married for eight years — llevamos ocho años casados

3)

a) (followed by a noun) ser*

she's a lawyer — es abogada

he's a Catholic — es católico

she was Prime Minister for 11 years — fue Primera Ministra durante 11 años

who was Prime Minister at the time? — ¿quién era Primer Ministro en ese momento?

it's me/Daniel — soy yo/es Daniel

if I were you, I'd stay — yo que tú or yo en tu lugar me quedaría

b) ( play the role of) hacer* de

I was Juliet in the school play — hice de Julieta en la obra del colegio

4)

a) ( talking about mental and physical states)

how are you? — ¿cómo estás?

I'm much better — estoy or me encuentro mucho mejor

she's pregnant/tired — está embarazada/cansada

I'm cold/hot/hungry/thirsty/sleepy — tengo frío/calor/hambre/sed/sueño

she has been ill — ha estado enferma

he's dead — está muerto

b) ( talking about age) tener*

how old are you? — ¿cuántos años tienes?

I'm 31 — tengo 31 años

Paul was four last Monday — Paul cumplió cuatro años el lunes pasado

he's a lot older/younger — es mucho mayor/menor

our house is over 100 years old — nuestra casa tiene más de 100 años

c) (giving cost, measurement, weight)

how much is that? - that'll be $15, please — ¿cuánto es? - (son) 15 dólares, por favor

they are $15 each — cuestan or valen 15 dólares cada una

two plus two is four — dos más dos son cuatro

how tall/heavy is he? — ¿cuánto mide/pesa?

Jim's over six feet (tall) — Jim mide más de seis pies

Sense II

5)

a) (exist, live)

I think, therefore I am — pienso, luego existo

to be or not to be — ser o no ser

to let something/somebody be — dejar tranquilo or en paz algo/a alguien

her husband-to-be — su futuro marido

b) ( in expressions of time)

don't be too long — no tardes mucho, no (te) demores mucho (esp AmL)

I'm drying my hair, I won't be long — me estoy secando el pelo, enseguida estoy

how long will dinner be? — ¿cuánto falta para la cena?

c) ( take place) ser*

the party is tomorrow — la fiesta es mañana

6) (be situated, present) estar*

where is the library? — ¿dónde está or queda la biblioteca?

where are you? — ¿dónde estás?

what's in that box? — ¿qué hay en esa caja?

who's in the movie? — ¿quién actúa or trabaja en la película?

he's here for two weeks — va a estar aquí dos semanas

how long are you in Chicago (for)? — (colloq) ¿cuánto (tiempo) te vas a quedar en Chicago ?

7) (only in perfect tenses) ( visit) estar*

I've never been to India — nunca he estado en la India

have you been to the exhibition yet? — ¿ya has estado en or has ido a la exposición?

2.

v impers

1)

a) (talking about physical conditions, circumstances)

it's sunny/cold/hot — hace sol/frío/calor

it's cloudy — está nublado

it was three degrees below zero — hacía tres grados bajo cero

it's so noisy/quiet in here! — qué ruido/silencio hay aquí!

I have enough problems as it is, without you... — yo ya tengo suficientes problemas sin que tú encima...

b) ( in expressions of time) ser*

it's three o'clock — son las tres

it's one o'clock — es la una

it was still very early — todavía era muy temprano

it's Wednesday today — hoy es miércoles

hi, Joe, it's been a long time — qué tal, Joe, tanto tiempo (sin verte)

c) ( talking about distance) estar*

it's 500 miles from here to Detroit — Detroit queda or está a 500 millas de aquí

2)

a) (introducing person, object) ser*

it was me who told them — fui yo quien se lo dije or dijo, fui yo el que se lo dije or dijo

b) (in conditional use) ser*

if it hadn't been o had it not been for Juan, we would have been killed — si no hubiera sido por Juan or de no ser por Juan, nos habríamos matado

3.

v aux

1) to be -ing

a) ( used to describe action in progress) estar* + ger

what was I saying? — ¿qué estaba diciendo?

she was leaving when... — se iba cuando...

how long have you been waiting? — ¿cuánto (tiempo) hace que esperas?, ¿cuánto (tiempo) llevas esperando?

b) ( with future reference)

he is o will be arriving tomorrow — llega mañana

when are you seeing her? — ¿cuándo la vas a ver or la verás?

she'll be staying at the Plaza — se va a alojar en el Plaza

2) (in the passive voice) ser* [The passive voice, however, is less common in Spanish than it is in English]

it was built in 1903 — fue construido en 1903, se construyó en 1903, lo construyeron en 1903

she was told that... — le dijeron or se le dijo que...

it is known that... — se sabe que...

3) to be to + inf

a) ( with future reference)

I'm to be met at the airport by Joe — Joe me irá a buscar al aeropuerto

the dessert is (still) to come — todavía falta el postre

if a solution is to be found... — si se quiere encontrar or si se ha de encontrar una solución...

b) ( expressing possibility)

what are we to do? — ¿qué podemos hacer?

he wasn't to know — no tenía cómo saberlo

it was nowhere to be found — no se lo pudo encontrar por ninguna parte

c) ( expressing obligation) deber* + inf, tener* que + inf, haber* de + inf

tell her she's to stay here — dile que debe quedarse or tiene que quedarse aquí, dile que se quede aquí

you are not to tell Carol! — no debes decírselo a Carol!

am I to understand that... ? — ¿debo entender que... ?

I'm not to be disturbed! — que nadie me moleste!

4) ( in hypotheses)

what would happen if she were o was to die? — ¿qué pasaría si ella muriera?

5)

a) (in tag questions)

she's right, isn't she? — tiene razón, ¿no? or ¿verdad? or ¿no es cierto?

so that's what you think, is it? — de manera que eso es lo que piensas

b) (in elliptical uses)

are you disappointed? - yes, I am/no, I'm not — ¿estás desilusionado? - sí (, lo estoy)/no (, no lo estoy)

she was told the news, and so was he/but I wasn't — a ella le dieron la noticia, y también a él/pero a mí no

I'm surprised, are/aren't you? — estoy sorprendido, ¿y tú?/¿tú no?

N ABBR
(Econ) = bill of exchange L/C
* * *
[biːˌ] weak form [bi]
1.

1) (pres am, are, is; past was, were; past p been) intransitive verb [See notes at ser and estar]

Sense I

2)

a) (followed by an adjective)

she's French/intelligent — es francesa/inteligente

he's worried/furious — está preocupado/furioso

he's blind — es or (Esp tb) está ciego

he's short and fat — es bajo y gordo

he's so fat he can't get into his clothes any more — está tan gordo que ya no le cabe la ropa

these shoes are new — estos zapatos son nuevos

have you never had gazpacho? it's delicious! — ¿nunca has comido gazpacho? es delicioso!

the gazpacho is delicious, did you make it yourself? — el gazpacho está delicioso ¿lo hiciste tú?

she was very rude to me — estuvo or fue muy grosera conmigo

she's very rude — es muy grosera

be good — sé bueno

don't be silly! — no seas tonto!

b) ( talking about marital status)

Tony is married/divorced/single — Tony está or (esp AmL) es casado/divorciado/soltero

to be married to somebody — estar* casado con alguien

we've been married for eight years — llevamos ocho años casados

3)

a) (followed by a noun) ser*

she's a lawyer — es abogada

he's a Catholic — es católico

she was Prime Minister for 11 years — fue Primera Ministra durante 11 años

who was Prime Minister at the time? — ¿quién era Primer Ministro en ese momento?

it's me/Daniel — soy yo/es Daniel

if I were you, I'd stay — yo que tú or yo en tu lugar me quedaría

b) ( play the role of) hacer* de

I was Juliet in the school play — hice de Julieta en la obra del colegio

4)

a) ( talking about mental and physical states)

how are you? — ¿cómo estás?

I'm much better — estoy or me encuentro mucho mejor

she's pregnant/tired — está embarazada/cansada

I'm cold/hot/hungry/thirsty/sleepy — tengo frío/calor/hambre/sed/sueño

she has been ill — ha estado enferma

he's dead — está muerto

b) ( talking about age) tener*

how old are you? — ¿cuántos años tienes?

I'm 31 — tengo 31 años

Paul was four last Monday — Paul cumplió cuatro años el lunes pasado

he's a lot older/younger — es mucho mayor/menor

our house is over 100 years old — nuestra casa tiene más de 100 años

c) (giving cost, measurement, weight)

how much is that? - that'll be $15, please — ¿cuánto es? - (son) 15 dólares, por favor

they are $15 each — cuestan or valen 15 dólares cada una

two plus two is four — dos más dos son cuatro

how tall/heavy is he? — ¿cuánto mide/pesa?

Jim's over six feet (tall) — Jim mide más de seis pies

Sense II

5)

a) (exist, live)

I think, therefore I am — pienso, luego existo

to be or not to be — ser o no ser

to let something/somebody be — dejar tranquilo or en paz algo/a alguien

her husband-to-be — su futuro marido

b) ( in expressions of time)

don't be too long — no tardes mucho, no (te) demores mucho (esp AmL)

I'm drying my hair, I won't be long — me estoy secando el pelo, enseguida estoy

how long will dinner be? — ¿cuánto falta para la cena?

c) ( take place) ser*

the party is tomorrow — la fiesta es mañana

6) (be situated, present) estar*

where is the library? — ¿dónde está or queda la biblioteca?

where are you? — ¿dónde estás?

what's in that box? — ¿qué hay en esa caja?

who's in the movie? — ¿quién actúa or trabaja en la película?

he's here for two weeks — va a estar aquí dos semanas

how long are you in Chicago (for)? — (colloq) ¿cuánto (tiempo) te vas a quedar en Chicago ?

7) (only in perfect tenses) ( visit) estar*

I've never been to India — nunca he estado en la India

have you been to the exhibition yet? — ¿ya has estado en or has ido a la exposición?

2.

v impers

1)

a) (talking about physical conditions, circumstances)

it's sunny/cold/hot — hace sol/frío/calor

it's cloudy — está nublado

it was three degrees below zero — hacía tres grados bajo cero

it's so noisy/quiet in here! — qué ruido/silencio hay aquí!

I have enough problems as it is, without you... — yo ya tengo suficientes problemas sin que tú encima...

b) ( in expressions of time) ser*

it's three o'clock — son las tres

it's one o'clock — es la una

it was still very early — todavía era muy temprano

it's Wednesday today — hoy es miércoles

hi, Joe, it's been a long time — qué tal, Joe, tanto tiempo (sin verte)

c) ( talking about distance) estar*

it's 500 miles from here to Detroit — Detroit queda or está a 500 millas de aquí

2)

a) (introducing person, object) ser*

it was me who told them — fui yo quien se lo dije or dijo, fui yo el que se lo dije or dijo

b) (in conditional use) ser*

if it hadn't been o had it not been for Juan, we would have been killed — si no hubiera sido por Juan or de no ser por Juan, nos habríamos matado

3.

v aux

1) to be -ing

a) ( used to describe action in progress) estar* + ger

what was I saying? — ¿qué estaba diciendo?

she was leaving when... — se iba cuando...

how long have you been waiting? — ¿cuánto (tiempo) hace que esperas?, ¿cuánto (tiempo) llevas esperando?

b) ( with future reference)

he is o will be arriving tomorrow — llega mañana

when are you seeing her? — ¿cuándo la vas a ver or la verás?

she'll be staying at the Plaza — se va a alojar en el Plaza

2) (in the passive voice) ser* [The passive voice, however, is less common in Spanish than it is in English]

it was built in 1903 — fue construido en 1903, se construyó en 1903, lo construyeron en 1903

she was told that... — le dijeron or se le dijo que...

it is known that... — se sabe que...

3) to be to + inf

a) ( with future reference)

I'm to be met at the airport by Joe — Joe me irá a buscar al aeropuerto

the dessert is (still) to come — todavía falta el postre

if a solution is to be found... — si se quiere encontrar or si se ha de encontrar una solución...

b) ( expressing possibility)

what are we to do? — ¿qué podemos hacer?

he wasn't to know — no tenía cómo saberlo

it was nowhere to be found — no se lo pudo encontrar por ninguna parte

c) ( expressing obligation) deber* + inf, tener* que + inf, haber* de + inf

tell her she's to stay here — dile que debe quedarse or tiene que quedarse aquí, dile que se quede aquí

you are not to tell Carol! — no debes decírselo a Carol!

am I to understand that... ? — ¿debo entender que... ?

I'm not to be disturbed! — que nadie me moleste!

4) ( in hypotheses)

what would happen if she were o was to die? — ¿qué pasaría si ella muriera?

5)

a) (in tag questions)

she's right, isn't she? — tiene razón, ¿no? or ¿verdad? or ¿no es cierto?

so that's what you think, is it? — de manera que eso es lo que piensas

b) (in elliptical uses)

are you disappointed? - yes, I am/no, I'm not — ¿estás desilusionado? - sí (, lo estoy)/no (, no lo estoy)

she was told the news, and so was he/but I wasn't — a ella le dieron la noticia, y también a él/pero a mí no

I'm surprised, are/aren't you? — estoy sorprendido, ¿y tú?/¿tú no?

English-spanish dictionary > BE
17 Brunel, Isambard Kingdom

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Land transport, Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Ports and shipping, Public utilities, Railways and locomotives

[br]

b. 9 April 1806 Portsea, Hampshire, England

d. 15 September 1859 18 Duke Street, St James's, London, England

[br]

English civil and mechanical engineer.

[br]

The son of Marc Isambard Brunel and Sophia Kingdom, he was educated at a private boarding-school in Hove. At the age of 14 he went to the College of Caen and then to the Lycée Henri-Quatre in Paris, after which he was apprenticed to Louis Breguet. In 1822 he returned from France and started working in his father's office, while spending much of his time at the works of Maudslay, Sons \& Field.

From 1825 to 1828 he worked under his father on the construction of the latter's Thames Tunnel, occupying the position of Engineer-in-Charge, exhibiting great courage and presence of mind in the emergencies which occurred not infrequently. These culminated in January 1828 in the flooding of the tunnel and work was suspended for seven years. For the next five years the young engineer made abortive attempts to find a suitable outlet for his talents, but to little avail. Eventually, in 1831, his design for a suspension bridge over the River Avon at Clifton Gorge was accepted and he was appointed Engineer. (The bridge was eventually finished five years after Brunel's death, as a memorial to him, the delay being due to inadequate financing.) He next planned and supervised improvements to the Bristol docks. In March 1833 he was appointed Engineer of the Bristol Railway, later called the Great Western Railway. He immediately started to survey the route between London and Bristol that was completed by late August that year. On 5 July 1836 he married Mary Horsley and settled into 18 Duke Street, Westminster, London, where he also had his office. Work on the Bristol Railway started in 1836. The foundation stone of the Clifton Suspension Bridge was laid the same year. Whereas George Stephenson had based his standard railway gauge as 4 ft 8½ in (1.44 m), that or a similar gauge being usual for colliery wagonways in the Newcastle area, Brunel adopted the broader gauge of 7 ft (2.13 m). The first stretch of the line, from Paddington to Maidenhead, was opened to traffic on 4 June 1838, and the whole line from London to Bristol was opened in June 1841. The continuation of the line through to Exeter was completed and opened on 1 May 1844. The normal time for the 194-mile (312 km) run from Paddington to Exeter was 5 hours, at an average speed of 38.8 mph (62.4 km/h) including stops. The Great Western line included the Box Tunnel, the longest tunnel to that date at nearly two miles (3.2 km).

Brunel was the engineer of most of the railways in the West Country, in South Wales and much of Southern Ireland. As railway networks developed, the frequent break of gauge became more of a problem and on 9 July 1845 a Royal Commission was appointed to look into it. In spite of comparative tests, run between Paddington-Didcot and Darlington-York, which showed in favour of Brunel's arrangement, the enquiry ruled in favour of the narrow gauge, 274 miles (441 km) of the former having been built against 1,901 miles (3,059 km) of the latter to that date. The Gauge Act of 1846 forbade the building of any further railways in Britain to any gauge other than 4 ft 8 1/2 in (1.44 m).

The existence of long and severe gradients on the South Devon Railway led to Brunel's adoption of the atmospheric railway developed by Samuel Clegg and later by the Samuda brothers. In this a pipe of 9 in. (23 cm) or more in diameter was laid between the rails, along the top of which ran a continuous hinged flap of leather backed with iron. At intervals of about 3 miles (4.8 km) were pumping stations to exhaust the pipe. Much trouble was experienced with the flap valve and its lubrication—freezing of the leather in winter, the lubricant being sucked into the pipe or eaten by rats at other times—and the experiment was abandoned at considerable cost.

Brunel is to be remembered for his two great West Country tubular bridges, the Chepstow and the Tamar Bridge at Saltash, with the latter opened in May 1859, having two main spans of 465 ft (142 m) and a central pier extending 80 ft (24 m) below high water mark and allowing 100 ft (30 m) of headroom above the same. His timber viaducts throughout Devon and Cornwall became a feature of the landscape. The line was extended ultimately to Penzance.

As early as 1835 Brunel had the idea of extending the line westwards across the Atlantic from Bristol to New York by means of a steamship. In 1836 building commenced and the hull left Bristol in July 1837 for fitting out at Wapping. On 31 March 1838 the ship left again for Bristol but the boiler lagging caught fire and Brunel was injured in the subsequent confusion. On 8 April the ship set sail for New York (under steam), its rival, the 703-ton Sirius, having left four days earlier. The 1,340-ton Great Western arrived only a few hours after the Sirius. The hull was of wood, and was copper-sheathed. In 1838 Brunel planned a larger ship, some 3,000 tons, the Great Britain, which was to have an iron hull.

The Great Britain was screwdriven and was launched on 19 July 1843,289 ft (88 m) long by 51 ft (15.5 m) at its widest. The ship's first voyage, from Liverpool to New York, began on 26 August 1845. In 1846 it ran aground in Dundrum Bay, County Down, and was later sold for use on the Australian run, on which it sailed no fewer than thirty-two times in twenty-three years, also serving as a troop-ship in the Crimean War. During this war, Brunel designed a 1,000-bed hospital which was shipped out to Renkioi ready for assembly and complete with shower-baths and vapour-baths with printed instructions on how to use them, beds and bedding and water closets with a supply of toilet paper! Brunel's last, largest and most extravagantly conceived ship was the Great Leviathan, eventually named The Great Eastern, which had a double-skinned iron hull, together with both paddles and screw propeller. Brunel designed the ship to carry sufficient coal for the round trip to Australia without refuelling, thus saving the need for and the cost of bunkering, as there were then few bunkering ports throughout the world. The ship's construction was started by John Scott Russell in his yard at Millwall on the Thames, but the building was completed by Brunel due to Russell's bankruptcy in 1856. The hull of the huge vessel was laid down so as to be launched sideways into the river and then to be floated on the tide. Brunel's plan for hydraulic launching gear had been turned down by the directors on the grounds of cost, an economy that proved false in the event. The sideways launch with over 4,000 tons of hydraulic power together with steam winches and floating tugs on the river took over two months, from 3 November 1857 until 13 January 1858. The ship was 680 ft (207 m) long, 83 ft (25 m) beam and 58 ft (18 m) deep; the screw was 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter and paddles 60 ft (18.3 m) in diameter. Its displacement was 32,000 tons (32,500 tonnes).

The strain of overwork and the huge responsibilities that lay on Brunel began to tell. He was diagnosed as suffering from Bright's disease, or nephritis, and spent the winter travelling in the Mediterranean and Egypt, returning to England in May 1859. On 5 September he suffered a stroke which left him partially paralysed, and he died ten days later at his Duke Street home.

[br]

Further Reading

L.T.C.Rolt, 1957, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, London: Longmans Green. J.Dugan, 1953, The Great Iron Ship, Hamish Hamilton.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Brunel, Isambard Kingdom
18 under

1. [ʹʌndə] n
1) что-л. не отвечающее стандарту, не соответствующее установленному размеру и т. п.

2) радио- или телепрограмма, занявшая меньше времени, чем было отведено

3) воен. недолёт
2. [ʹʌndə] a
1. нижний, находящийся внизу, под (чем-л.); покрытый (чем-л.)

under jaw - нижняя челюсть

the under layer - нижний слой

the upper and the under surface of a leaf - верхняя и нижняя поверхности листа

2. тихий, приглушённый ( о звуке)

3. подчинённый, нижестоящий, занимающий более низкое положение

4. меньший; не отвечающий стандарту или норме

an under dose of medicine - уменьшенная доза лекарства

5. амер. сл. безвыходное положение

to get out from under - а) выпутаться; развязаться с кем-л., чем-л.; б) расплатиться с долгами
3. [ʹʌndə] adv
указывает на

1. 1) движение вниз, под какой-л. предмет вниз

get under quick! - лезь скорее вниз!

2) положение ниже чего-л. внизу, ниже

he was buried under by an avalanche - его засыпало снежной лавиной

he was snowed under in the election - он с треском провалился на выборах

3) место, находящееся дальше в книге, статье и т. п. ниже, дальше

as under - как сказано ниже

see under for further discussion - более подробно смотри дальше /ниже/ (в статье и т. п.)

4) положение ниже уровня воды или движение под воду под

the swimmer went under - пловец скрылся под водой

the ship went under - судно затонуло

he stayed two minutes under - он находился две минуты под водой

5) положение за горизонтом или движение за горизонт (о солнце и т. п.) за горизонт(ом)

the sun went under an hour ago - солнце село /зашло за горизонт/ час назад

2. 1) меньшее количество меньше

ten dollars or under - десять долларов или (даже) меньше

2) более молодой возраст моложе

children of seven years and under - дети семи лет и моложе

3. установление контроля над чем-л. или ликвидацию чего-л.:

to bring under - подчинять

to keep under - а) не давать распространяться; б) угнетать, держать под гнётом

to keep one's feelings under - сдерживать свои чувства

the fire was got under - пожар был потушен

the weaker competitors were forced under - более слабые конкуренты были разорены
4. [ʹʌndə] prep
указывает на

1. 1) нахождение под каким-л. предметом под

under the bed - под кроватью

under one's arm - под мышкой

two horses were shot under him - под ним были убиты две лошади

to live under the same roof - жить под одной крышей

from under smth. - из-под чего-л.

to get one's boots from under the bed - достать сапоги из-под кровати

2) расположение ниже какого-л. предмета или непосредственно под ним под

the village lies under a mountain - деревня расположена у подножия горы

put one number under the other - напишите одно число под другим

3) нахождение рядом с чем-л. у, под

under the very pole - у самого полюса

to shelter under a wall - укрыться у стены

4) нахождение под поверхностью чего-л. или ниже какого-л. уровня под

under the ground - под землёй

under the skin - под кожей

twenty thousand feet under the sea - на глубине двадцати тысяч футов

5) движение под какой-л. предмет или прохождение под каким-л. предметом под

slip the letter under the door - подсуньте письмо под дверь

to fall under the table - упасть под стол

to creep under smth. - залезть под что-л.

2. 1) нахождение под бременем, тяжестью, давлением, угрозой и т. п. под

under pressure - под давлением

under the threat of smth. - под угрозой чего-л.

it is forbidden under a heavy fine - это запрещено под угрозой большого штрафа

he broke down under the burden of sorrow - горе сломило его

2) вынужденность, связанность обещанием и т. п. под, по

you are under oath to tell the truth - вы дали присягу говорить только правду

to be under a promise to do smth. - быть связанным обещанием сделать что-л.

under the necessity of - по необходимости

to confess one's crime under the weight of evidence - сознаться в преступлении под тяжестью улик

3) нахождение под каким-л. влиянием или воздействием под, в

under the impression that - под впечатлением того, что

to be under a delusion that - заблуждаться /ошибаться/ насчёт того, что

3. 1) нахождение под командованием, руководством, наблюдением, покровительством и т. п. кого-л. под, в, у

to fight under smb. - сражаться под чьим-л. командованием

to be under smb. - работать /служить/ под начальством кого-л.

under the British flag - под британским флагом

under inspection - под контролем

patients under treatment [observation] - больные, находящиеся на излечении [под наблюдением]

he is under doctor B. - он находится под наблюдением доктора B.

under the editorship of smb. - под чьей-л. редакцией

he studied the violin under a famous violinist - он учился играть на скрипке у знаменитого скрипача

to be under smb.'s care - находиться на чьём-л. попечении

2) отнесение к какому-л. общественному строю, эпохе, правлению и т. п. под, при; в (эпоху), во время

under capitalism - при капитализме

under the Roman Empire - в эпоху Римской империи

under the Stuarts - в эпоху /во времена/ Стюартов

4. нахождение в каком-л. состоянии или каких-л. условиях под, в, при

under such [any] conditions - в таких [в любых] условиях

under the circumstances - при данных /сложившихся/ обстоятельствах

under arms - а) вооружённый; б) под ружьём

to be under suspicion - быть под подозрением

to be under sentence - быть приговорённым (к чему-л.)

under chloroform - под хлороформом

land under irrigation - орошаемая земля

to die under an operation - умереть на операционном столе, умереть во время операции

5. осуществление действия под, на; вместе с существительным передаётся часто личной формой глагола

the matter is under discussion [consideration] - вопрос обсуждается [рассматривается]

under repair - в ремонте; ремонтируется

the house is under construction - дом строится

6. соответствие закону, правилам, договору и т. п. по, согласно

under agreement - по соглашению

under the terms of the treaty - по условиям договора

under the rules of the club - согласно уставу клуба

under smb.'s will - по чьему-л. завещанию

7. включение в главу, раздел и т. п. под, в, на

under the head(ing) - под заголовком

see under M. - смотри на M.

under Section 11 of the Act - в статье 11 данного закона

8. имя ( часто вымышленное), псевдоним под

under an assumed name - под вымышленным /чужим/ именем

under a pen-name - под псевдонимом

under an incognito - инкогнито

9. наличие подписи, даты и т. п. за

under smb.'s signature - за чьей-л. подписью

under one's hand and seal - за чьей-л. подписью и печатью

a letter under date of the 5th instant - канц. письмо, датированное 5-м числом текущего месяца, письмо от 5-го числа текущего месяца

10. 1) меньшее количество меньше; ниже

under £5 - меньше пяти фунтов

under cost - ниже стоимости

under 50 people were there - там не было и пятидесяти человек

to walk five miles in under an hour - пройти пять миль меньше чем за час

2) более молодой возраст до, моложе

children under six years of age - дети до /моложе/ шести лет

books for under tens - книги для детей до десяти лет

to be under age - не достигнуть совершеннолетия [см. тж. under-age]

3) отступление от какого-л. стандарта, установленного размера, количества и т. п. меньше, ниже

the loaf is under weight - эта буханка весит меньше нормы

11. более низкий ранг, подчинённое положение и т. п. ниже

a corporal is under sergeant - по чину капрал ниже сержанта

he ill-treated those under him - он плохо обращался с подчинёнными

12. произрастающую на данном участке культуру под

a field under wheat [grass] - поле под пшеницей [травой], поле, засеянное пшеницей [травой]

♢ under one's nose см. nose I ♢

under one's breath - тихим голосом; шёпотом

to tread under foot см. tread II 3, 2)

under one's hat см. hat I ♢

to be under a cloud см. cloud I ♢

under the sun см. sun I ♢ ; [др. сочетания см. под соответствующими словами]

НБАРС > under
19 under

1. [ʹʌndə] n
1) что-л. не отвечающее стандарту, не соответствующее установленному размеру и т. п.

2) радио- или телепрограмма, занявшая меньше времени, чем было отведено

3) воен. недолёт
2. [ʹʌndə] a
1. нижний, находящийся внизу, под (чем-л.); покрытый (чем-л.)

under jaw - нижняя челюсть

the under layer - нижний слой

the upper and the under surface of a leaf - верхняя и нижняя поверхности листа

2. тихий, приглушённый ( о звуке)

3. подчинённый, нижестоящий, занимающий более низкое положение

4. меньший; не отвечающий стандарту или норме

an under dose of medicine - уменьшенная доза лекарства

5. амер. сл. безвыходное положение

to get out from under - а) выпутаться; развязаться с кем-л., чем-л.; б) расплатиться с долгами
3. [ʹʌndə] adv
указывает на

1. 1) движение вниз, под какой-л. предмет вниз

get under quick! - лезь скорее вниз!

2) положение ниже чего-л. внизу, ниже

he was buried under by an avalanche - его засыпало снежной лавиной

he was snowed under in the election - он с треском провалился на выборах

3) место, находящееся дальше в книге, статье и т. п. ниже, дальше

as under - как сказано ниже

see under for further discussion - более подробно смотри дальше /ниже/ (в статье и т. п.)

4) положение ниже уровня воды или движение под воду под

the swimmer went under - пловец скрылся под водой

the ship went under - судно затонуло

he stayed two minutes under - он находился две минуты под водой

5) положение за горизонтом или движение за горизонт (о солнце и т. п.) за горизонт(ом)

the sun went under an hour ago - солнце село /зашло за горизонт/ час назад

2. 1) меньшее количество меньше

ten dollars or under - десять долларов или (даже) меньше

2) более молодой возраст моложе

children of seven years and under - дети семи лет и моложе

3. установление контроля над чем-л. или ликвидацию чего-л.:

to bring under - подчинять

to keep under - а) не давать распространяться; б) угнетать, держать под гнётом

to keep one's feelings under - сдерживать свои чувства

the fire was got under - пожар был потушен

the weaker competitors were forced under - более слабые конкуренты были разорены
4. [ʹʌndə] prep
указывает на

1. 1) нахождение под каким-л. предметом под

under the bed - под кроватью

under one's arm - под мышкой

two horses were shot under him - под ним были убиты две лошади

to live under the same roof - жить под одной крышей

from under smth. - из-под чего-л.

to get one's boots from under the bed - достать сапоги из-под кровати

2) расположение ниже какого-л. предмета или непосредственно под ним под

the village lies under a mountain - деревня расположена у подножия горы

put one number under the other - напишите одно число под другим

3) нахождение рядом с чем-л. у, под

under the very pole - у самого полюса

to shelter under a wall - укрыться у стены

4) нахождение под поверхностью чего-л. или ниже какого-л. уровня под

under the ground - под землёй

under the skin - под кожей

twenty thousand feet under the sea - на глубине двадцати тысяч футов

5) движение под какой-л. предмет или прохождение под каким-л. предметом под

slip the letter under the door - подсуньте письмо под дверь

to fall under the table - упасть под стол

to creep under smth. - залезть под что-л.

2. 1) нахождение под бременем, тяжестью, давлением, угрозой и т. п. под

under pressure - под давлением

under the threat of smth. - под угрозой чего-л.

it is forbidden under a heavy fine - это запрещено под угрозой большого штрафа

he broke down under the burden of sorrow - горе сломило его

2) вынужденность, связанность обещанием и т. п. под, по

you are under oath to tell the truth - вы дали присягу говорить только правду

to be under a promise to do smth. - быть связанным обещанием сделать что-л.

under the necessity of - по необходимости

to confess one's crime under the weight of evidence - сознаться в преступлении под тяжестью улик

3) нахождение под каким-л. влиянием или воздействием под, в

under the impression that - под впечатлением того, что

to be under a delusion that - заблуждаться /ошибаться/ насчёт того, что

3. 1) нахождение под командованием, руководством, наблюдением, покровительством и т. п. кого-л. под, в, у

to fight under smb. - сражаться под чьим-л. командованием

to be under smb. - работать /служить/ под начальством кого-л.

under the British flag - под британским флагом

under inspection - под контролем

patients under treatment [observation] - больные, находящиеся на излечении [под наблюдением]

he is under doctor B. - он находится под наблюдением доктора B.

under the editorship of smb. - под чьей-л. редакцией

he studied the violin under a famous violinist - он учился играть на скрипке у знаменитого скрипача

to be under smb.'s care - находиться на чьём-л. попечении

2) отнесение к какому-л. общественному строю, эпохе, правлению и т. п. под, при; в (эпоху), во время

under capitalism - при капитализме

under the Roman Empire - в эпоху Римской империи

under the Stuarts - в эпоху /во времена/ Стюартов

4. нахождение в каком-л. состоянии или каких-л. условиях под, в, при

under such [any] conditions - в таких [в любых] условиях

under the circumstances - при данных /сложившихся/ обстоятельствах

under arms - а) вооружённый; б) под ружьём

to be under suspicion - быть под подозрением

to be under sentence - быть приговорённым (к чему-л.)

under chloroform - под хлороформом

land under irrigation - орошаемая земля

to die under an operation - умереть на операционном столе, умереть во время операции

5. осуществление действия под, на; вместе с существительным передаётся часто личной формой глагола

the matter is under discussion [consideration] - вопрос обсуждается [рассматривается]

under repair - в ремонте; ремонтируется

the house is under construction - дом строится

6. соответствие закону, правилам, договору и т. п. по, согласно

under agreement - по соглашению

under the terms of the treaty - по условиям договора

under the rules of the club - согласно уставу клуба

under smb.'s will - по чьему-л. завещанию

7. включение в главу, раздел и т. п. под, в, на

under the head(ing) - под заголовком

see under M. - смотри на M.

under Section 11 of the Act - в статье 11 данного закона

8. имя ( часто вымышленное), псевдоним под

under an assumed name - под вымышленным /чужим/ именем

under a pen-name - под псевдонимом

under an incognito - инкогнито

9. наличие подписи, даты и т. п. за

under smb.'s signature - за чьей-л. подписью

under one's hand and seal - за чьей-л. подписью и печатью

a letter under date of the 5th instant - канц. письмо, датированное 5-м числом текущего месяца, письмо от 5-го числа текущего месяца

10. 1) меньшее количество меньше; ниже

under £5 - меньше пяти фунтов

under cost - ниже стоимости

under 50 people were there - там не было и пятидесяти человек

to walk five miles in under an hour - пройти пять миль меньше чем за час

2) более молодой возраст до, моложе

children under six years of age - дети до /моложе/ шести лет

books for under tens - книги для детей до десяти лет

to be under age - не достигнуть совершеннолетия [см. тж. under-age]

3) отступление от какого-л. стандарта, установленного размера, количества и т. п. меньше, ниже

the loaf is under weight - эта буханка весит меньше нормы

11. более низкий ранг, подчинённое положение и т. п. ниже

a corporal is under sergeant - по чину капрал ниже сержанта

he ill-treated those under him - он плохо обращался с подчинёнными

12. произрастающую на данном участке культуру под

a field under wheat [grass] - поле под пшеницей [травой], поле, засеянное пшеницей [травой]

♢ under one's nose см. nose I ♢

under one's breath - тихим голосом; шёпотом

to tread under foot см. tread II 3, 2)

under one's hat см. hat I ♢

to be under a cloud см. cloud I ♢

under the sun см. sun I ♢ ; [др. сочетания см. под соответствующими словами]

НБАРС > under
20 Evans, Oliver

SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology

[br]

b. 13 September 1755 Newport, Delaware, USA

d. 15 April 1819 New York, USA

[br]

American millwright and inventor of the first automatic corn mill.

[br]

He was the fifth child of Charles and Ann Stalcrop Evans, and by the age of 15 he had four sisters and seven brothers. Nothing is known of his schooling, but at the age of 17 he was apprenticed to a Newport wheelwright and wagon-maker. At 19 he was enrolled in a Delaware Militia Company in the Revolutionary War but did not see active service. About this time he invented a machine for bending and cutting off the wires in textile carding combs. In July 1782, with his younger brother, Joseph, he moved to Tuckahoe on the eastern shore of the Delaware River, where he had the basic idea of the automatic flour mill. In July 1782, with his elder brothers John and Theophilus, he bought part of his father's Newport farm, on Red Clay Creek, and planned to build a mill there. In 1793 he married Sarah Tomlinson, daughter of a Delaware farmer, and joined his brothers at Red Clay Creek. He worked there for some seven years on his automatic mill, from about 1783 to 1790.

His system for the automatic flour mill consisted of bucket elevators to raise the grain, a horizontal screw conveyor, other conveying devices and a "hopper boy" to cool and dry the meal before gathering it into a hopper feeding the bolting cylinder. Together these components formed the automatic process, from incoming wheat to outgoing flour packed in barrels. At that time the idea of such automation had not been applied to any manufacturing process in America. The mill opened, on a non-automatic cycle, in 1785. In January 1786 Evans applied to the Delaware legislature for a twenty-five-year patent, which was granted on 30 January 1787 although there was much opposition from the Quaker millers of Wilmington and elsewhere. He also applied for patents in Pennsylvania, Maryland and New Hampshire. In May 1789 he went to see the mill of the four Ellicot brothers, near Baltimore, where he was impressed by the design of a horizontal screw conveyor by Jonathan Ellicot and exchanged the rights to his own elevator for those of this machine. After six years' work on his automatic mill, it was completed in 1790. In the autumn of that year a miller in Brandywine ordered a set of Evans's machinery, which set the trend toward its general adoption. A model of it was shown in the Market Street shop window of Robert Leslie, a watch-and clockmaker in Philadelphia, who also took it to England but was unsuccessful in selling the idea there.

In 1790 the Federal Plant Laws were passed; Evans's patent was the third to come within the new legislation. A detailed description with a plate was published in a Philadelphia newspaper in January 1791, the first of a proposed series, but the paper closed and the series came to nothing. His brother Joseph went on a series of sales trips, with the result that some machinery of Evans's design was adopted. By 1792 over one hundred mills had been equipped with Evans's machinery, the millers paying a royalty of $40 for each pair of millstones in use. The series of articles that had been cut short formed the basis of Evans's The Young Millwright and Miller's Guide, published first in 1795 after Evans had moved to Philadelphia to set up a store selling milling supplies; it was 440 pages long and ran to fifteen editions between 1795 and 1860.

Evans was fairly successful as a merchant. He patented a method of making millstones as well as a means of packing flour in barrels, the latter having a disc pressed down by a toggle-joint arrangement. In 1801 he started to build a steam carriage. He rejected the idea of a steam wheel and of a low-pressure or atmospheric engine. By 1803 his first engine was running at his store, driving a screw-mill working on plaster of Paris for making millstones. The engine had a 6 in. (15 cm) diameter cylinder with a stroke of 18 in. (45 cm) and also drove twelve saws mounted in a frame and cutting marble slabs at a rate of 100 ft (30 m) in twelve hours. He was granted a patent in the spring of 1804. He became involved in a number of lawsuits following the extension of his patent, particularly as he increased the licence fee, sometimes as much as sixfold. The case of Evans v. Samuel Robinson, which Evans won, became famous and was one of these. Patent Right Oppression Exposed, or Knavery Detected, a 200-page book with poems and prose included, was published soon after this case and was probably written by Oliver Evans. The steam engine patent was also extended for a further seven years, but in this case the licence fee was to remain at a fixed level. Evans anticipated Edison in his proposal for an "Experimental Company" or "Mechanical Bureau" with a capital of thirty shares of $100 each. It came to nothing, however, as there were no takers. His first wife, Sarah, died in 1816 and he remarried, to Hetty Ward, the daughter of a New York innkeeper. He was buried in the Bowery, on Lower Manhattan; the church was sold in 1854 and again in 1890, and when no relative claimed his body he was reburied in an unmarked grave in Trinity Cemetery, 57th Street, Broadway.

[br]

Further Reading

E.S.Ferguson, 1980, Oliver Evans: Inventive Genius of the American Industrial Revolution, Hagley Museum.

G.Bathe and D.Bathe, 1935, Oliver Evans: Chronicle of Early American Engineering, Philadelphia, Pa.

IMcN

Biographical history of technology > Evans, Oliver

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

he is twenty-five years of age

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

Перевод: с английского на все языки

he is twenty-five years of age

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